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| | |Estates of France | | |Estates of France |
| − | |the social rankings that led to the French Revolution: the First Estate was clergy, only 1% of population but in control of 10% of the land; the Second Estate was the nobility, only 2% of the population but in control of 20% of the land; and the Third Estate were the peasants, laborers and merchants, which was 97% of the population. | + | |the social rankings that led to the French Revolution: the First Estate was clergy, only 1% of population but in control of 10% of the land; the Second Estate was the nobility, only 2% of the population but in control of 20% of the land; and the Third Estate was the peasants, laborers and merchants, which was 97% of the population. |
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| | |Simón Bolívar | | |Simón Bolívar |
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| | |James Clerk Maxwell | | |James Clerk Maxwell |
| − | |(1831-1879) British physicist, perhaps the greatest of the 1800s; he developed a single consistent electromagnetic theory and the "maxwell", a unit of magnetic flux, was named in his honor | + | |(1831-1879) the greatest physicist of the 1800s, Maxwell was a devout Christian from Scotland who developed the modern unified electromagnetic theory. The "maxwell", a unit of magnetic flux, was named in his honor. |
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| | |Johann Sebastian Bach | | |Johann Sebastian Bach |
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| | |Mustafa Kemal Atatürk | | |Mustafa Kemal Atatürk |
| − | |(1923) created the modern state of Turkey, with a combination of military rule and an elected Parliament; also converted the Arabic language to a modern, Latin-style alphabet | + | |(1923) created the modern state of Turkey, with a combination of military rule and an elected Parliament; also converted its Arabic language to a modern, Latin-style alphabet |
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| | |Vladimir Ilyich Lenin | | |Vladimir Ilyich Lenin |
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| | |[[Il Duce]] | | |[[Il Duce]] |
| − | |"The Leader." Name used by the fascists to identify Mussolini in the 1930s and during World War II. | + | |"The Leader." Name used by the fascists to identify Mussolini from about 1920 to 1943 |
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| | |[[Nazi]] | | |[[Nazi]] |
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Line 563: |
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| | |George Patton | | |George Patton |
| − | |homeschooled, this American was the finest field general in WWII and the only one the Germans truly feared; he was better at blitzkrieg-style tank warfare than the Germans were. He style caused far more casualties in the enemy than suffered by his troops. | + | |homeschooled, this American was the finest field general in WWII and the only one the Germans truly feared; he was better at blitzkrieg-style tank warfare than the Germans were. His aggressive style caused far more casualties in the enemy than suffered by his troops. |
| | |- | | |- |
| | |[[Big Bang]] | | |[[Big Bang]] |
| − | |1927: a scientific theory developed by a Catholic priest, initially ridiculed before being accepted by many physicists, that the universe had a unique, sudden creation rather than having existed forever | + | |1927: a scientific theory developed by a Catholic priest, initially ridiculed before being accepted by many physicists, that the universe had a unique, sudden creation rather than having existed forever as other scientists claimed |
| | |- | | |- |
| | |quantum mechanics | | |quantum mechanics |
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| | |intifada | | |intifada |
| − | |in general, "intifada" is a Muslim term that refers generally to an unorganized uprising, which can include violence; specifically, to a campaign by the Muslim PLO from 1987 to 1993 against Israelis. | + | |in general, "intifada" is a Muslim term that refers generally to an unorganized uprising, which can include violence; more specifically, "intifada" refers to a campaign by the Muslim PLO from 1987 to 1993 against Israelis. |
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| | |Declaration of Principles | | |Declaration of Principles |
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| | |Benjamin Netanyahu | | |Benjamin Netanyahu |
| − | |current leader of conservatives in Israel who is its current Prime Minister in 2011 | + | |a conservative leader in Israel who has been its Prime Minister since 2009 |
| | |- | | |- |
| | |Mikhail Gorbachev | | |Mikhail Gorbachev |
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| | |Commonwealth of Independent States | | |Commonwealth of Independent States |
| − | |the successor to the Soviet Union; most of its nations (including Russia) joined, except for the Baltic republics and Georgia | + | |the successor to the Soviet Union; most of its nations (including Russia) joined, except for the Baltic republics and the nation of Georgia (no connection with the American state of Georgia) |
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| | |Chechnya | | |Chechnya |
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Line 704: |
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| | |John Paul II | | |John Paul II |
| − | |(reigned 1978-2005) the first Polish pope of the Catholic Church, who then opposed communism especially in his homeland of Poland | + | |(reigned 1978-2005) the first Polish pope of the Catholic Church, who then opposed communism especially in his homeland of Poland, promising to return to Poland to fight against the Soviet Union if it invaded |
| | |- | | |- |
| | |Lech Walesa | | |Lech Walesa |
| − | |a leader against communism in Poland, who led his political party Solidarity to power once free elections were held in April 1989 | + | |a leader against communism in Poland, who led his political party "Solidarity" to power once free elections were held in April 1989 as communism fell apart |
| | |- | | |- |
| | |Hungary | | |Hungary |
| − | |attempted unsuccessfully to overthrow communism in 1956 (the Soviet Union invaded to suppress the revolt), but Hungarians overthrew communism in October 1989 | + | |attempted unsuccessfully to overthrow communism in 1956 (the Soviet Union invaded to suppress the revolt), but Hungarians eventually overthrew communism in October 1989 |
| | |- | | |- |
| | |East Germany | | |East Germany |
| − | |an atheistic, communist nation until demonstrations broke out in October 1989, which not even its ruthless dictator Erich Honecker could control; he resigned and his successor opened the Berlin Wall in November 1989, whereupon the people tore the wall down | + | |an atheistic, communist nation until demonstrations broke out in October 1989, which not even its ruthless dictator Erich Honecker could control; he resigned and his successor opened the Berlin Wall in November 1989, whereupon the people then tore the wall completely down |
| | |- | | |- |
| | |Czechoslovakia | | |Czechoslovakia |
| − | |combination of diverse ethnic groups formed in 1919 out of the old Austria-Hungarian empire to promote [[Woodrow Wilson|Woodrow Wilson's]] "self-determination" principle, until Hitler invaded it in 1938; after WWII it was a communist-controlled nation until demonstrations forced its Communist Party leader to resign in November 1989; in 1993, the Czechoslovakia split along ethnic lines to form Slovakia and the Czech Republic | + | |combination of diverse ethnic groups formed in 1919 out of the old Austria-Hungarian empire to promote [[Woodrow Wilson|Woodrow Wilson's]] "self-determination" principle, until Hitler invaded it in 1938; after WWII it was a communist-controlled nation until demonstrations forced its Communist Party leader to resign in November 1989. In 1993, the Czechoslovakia split along ethnic lines to form Slovakia and the Czech Republic |
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| | |Romania | | |Romania |
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Line 722: |
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| | |Nicolae Ceausescu | | |Nicolae Ceausescu |
| − | |communist dictator of Romania from 1965 to Christmas Day 1989; unlike most communists, Ceausescu was pro-life and he prohibited abortion | + | |communist dictator of Romania from 1965 to Christmas Day 1989; unlike all other communist dictators, Ceausescu was pro-life and he prohibited abortion. In the 1990s, many Americans went to Romania to adopt children. |
| | |- | | |- |
| | |Yugoslavia | | |Yugoslavia |
| Line 734: |
Line 734: |
| | |- | | |- |
| | |Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) | | |Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) |
| − | |(1980s) also known as “Star Wars,” Reagan proposed developing advantaged technology to intercept and destroy fast-moving missiles that might be launched against the U.S. | + | |(1980s) also known as “Star Wars,” Reagan proposed developing advanced technology to intercept and destroy fast-moving missiles that might be launched against the U.S. |
| | |- | | |- |
| | |Chairman Mao Zedong | | |Chairman Mao Zedong |
| − | |(ruled 1949-1976) the ruthless dictator who founded communist China and then starved tens of millions to death; in 1965 he imposed the "Cultural Revolution" to senselessly eliminate people who were achievers | + | |(ruled 1949-1976) the ruthless dictator who founded communist China and then starved tens of millions to death; in 1965 he imposed the "Cultural Revolution" to senselessly eliminate people who had been successful |
| | |- | | |- |
| | |Tiananmen Square | | |Tiananmen Square |
| Line 743: |
Line 743: |
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| | |Hong Kong | | |Hong Kong |
| − | |was a colony of Great Britain until July 1, 1997, when Britain's lease expired and it returned this colony to China, which promised to allow Hong Kong to remain capitalistic for another 50 years | + | |was a colony of Great Britain until July 1, 1997, when Britain's lease expired and it returned this colony to China, which promised to allow Hong Kong to remain capitalist for another 50 years |
| | |- | | |- |
| | |9-11 | | |9-11 |
| − | |(September 11, 2001) 19 Muslims, most from Saudi Arabia, hijacked American airplanes and flew one into each tower of the World Trade Center, a third into the Pentagon, and a fourth crashed in Pennsylvania as the passengers attempted to retake control of the plane from the terrorists. | + | |(September 11, 2001) 19 Muslims, most from Saudi Arabia, hijacked American airplanes and flew one into each tower of the World Trade Center, which then collapsed, flew a third plane into the Pentagon, and a fourth crashed in Pennsylvania as the passengers attempted to retake control of the plane from the terrorists. |
| | |- | | |- |
| | |[[Arab Spring]] | | |[[Arab Spring]] |
| − | |2010-present: Muslims overthrowing the governments in [[Tunisia]], [[Egypt]] and [[Libya]], after which Islamic control was more complete and persecution of Christians increased. | + | |2010-present: Muslims overthrowing governments in [[Tunisia]], [[Egypt]] and [[Libya]], after which Islamic control was complete and persecution of Christians increased. |
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| | |Modern Era | | |Modern Era |
| Line 769: |
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| | |[[Standing army]] | | |[[Standing army]] |
| − | |Army in peacetime, to which American colonist objected when England stationed troops in the colonies in the 1760s and early 1770s. Among nationalistic countries in Europe, standing armies became large in the 1900s. | + | |an Army in peacetime, and a sign of a nation's military strength |
| | |- | | |- |
| | |[[Battle of the Somme]] | | |[[Battle of the Somme]] |
| − | |This battle started with the British and French meeting at the Somme River to begin an attack on the Germans to distract them from Verdun. The Allies bombed the Germans lines then sent 200,000 troops to storm them. The Germans were prepared for the attack and the losses were great. The British lost 20,000 men and had 40,000 wounded. The British and the French lost nearly 750,000 men. | + | |This battle started with the British and French meeting at the Somme River to begin an attack on the Germans to distract them from Verdun. The Allies bombed the Germans lines then sent 200,000 troops to storm them. The Germans were prepared for the attack and the losses were great, as were the British and French casualties. |
| | |- | | |- |
| | |[[Third Battle of Ypres]] | | |[[Third Battle of Ypres]] |