Changes

== Tariffs ==

== Tariffs ==

Throughout the late 1700s and all of the 1800s the federal (national) government raised money for its operations primarily through tariffs, which are taxes on imports.  When a foreign country sent goods to be sold in the United States, our federal government would impose a tariff (tax) on those goods.  The more goods that were imported, the more revenue there would be from the tariffs.  Tariffs were ultimately replaced in the 1900s by the income tax on individuals as the primary means for supporting our government, because President Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) thought tariffs caused conflicts and wars between nations.

Throughout the late 1700s and all of the 1800s the federal (national) government raised money for its operations primarily through tariffs, which are taxes on imports.  When a foreign country sent goods to be sold in the United States, our federal government would impose a tariff (tax) on those goods.  The more goods that were imported, the more revenue there would be from the tariffs.  Tariffs were ultimately replaced in the 1900s by the income tax on individuals as the primary means for supporting our government, because President Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) thought tariffs caused conflicts and wars between nations.

 

Tariffs helped protect the domestic (United States) businesses by increasing the costs of the foreign competition, and thus are called "protective tariffs."  If you were to own a factory that produces computers, and if there were a tariff imposing a $100 tax on all imported computers, then you would be thrilled because you could undersell the competition and make more profits for your company.  The North liked tariffs because the tariffs protected their manufacturing companies against competition by foreign manufacturers; the South disliked tariffs because it caused their cotton farmers to pay more for equipment, and because foreign nations would retaliate by imposing similar tariffs on the cotton exported by the South, which reduced the southern farmers' revenue.

Tariffs helped protect the domestic (United States) businesses by increasing the costs of the foreign competition, and thus are called "protective tariffs."  If you were to own a factory that produces computers, and if there were a tariff imposing a $100 tax on all imported computers, then you would be thrilled because you could undersell the competition and make more profits for your company.  The North liked tariffs because the tariffs protected their manufacturing companies against competition by foreign manufacturers; the South disliked tariffs because it caused their cotton farmers to pay more for equipment, and because foreign nations would retaliate by imposing similar tariffs on the cotton exported by the South, which reduced the southern farmers' revenue.

In 1803, Jefferson appointed the former '''''anti-Federalist''''' [[James Monroe]] to negotiate terms for the purchase of New Orleans and West Florida from France, and to offer $2 million for this land but to go as high as $10 million if necessary for those two parcels of property.  James Monroe was respected in France; he had even persuaded France to release the American writer Thomas Paine from prison there, where he had been convicted of treason for opposing use of the guillotine during the French Revolution.   

In 1803, Jefferson appointed the former '''''anti-Federalist''''' [[James Monroe]] to negotiate terms for the purchase of New Orleans and West Florida from France, and to offer $2 million for this land but to go as high as $10 million if necessary for those two parcels of property.  James Monroe was respected in France; he had even persuaded France to release the American writer Thomas Paine from prison there, where he had been convicted of treason for opposing use of the guillotine during the French Revolution.   

 

By 1803 [[Napoleon]] had suffered a costly failure in connection with a successful slave revolt in [[Haiti]], and he had decided that France should not try to colonize the New World any further.  So France asked Monroe how much he would pay for ''all of'' France's territory on the North American continent, which included the vast tract of land northwest of Louisiana (stretching all the way along the Missouri River, to what is now Oregon on the Pacific coast).  Monroe was able to negotiate extremely favorable terms of $11.25 million to France for ''all of'' the property (which translates to only a few pennies per acre), and not merely West Florida and New Orleans.  This enormous tract of land was as large as the entire United States at the time.  The overall purchase price was $15 million because Monroe also agreed that the United States would assume nearly $4 million in debts owed by France to American citizens at the time.

By 1803 [[Napoleon]] had suffered a costly failure in connection with a successful slave revolt in [[Haiti]], and he had decided that France should not try to colonize the New World any further.  So France asked Monroe how much he would pay for ''all of'' France's territory on the North American continent, which included the vast tract of land northwest of Louisiana (stretching all the way along the Missouri River, to what is now Oregon on the Pacific coast).  Monroe was able to negotiate extremely favorable terms of $11.25 million to France for ''all of'' the property (which translates to only a few pennies per acre), and not merely West Florida and New Orleans.  This enormous tract of land was as large as the entire United States at the time.  The overall purchase price was $15 million because Monroe also agreed that the United States would assume nearly $4 million in debts owed by France to American citizens at the time.

In 1819, Monroe completed the Adams-Onis Treaty to annex Florida to the United States, and also added property north of the southern border of current Oregon (which we now call the "Northwest").

In 1819, Monroe completed the Adams-Onis Treaty to annex Florida to the United States, and also added property north of the southern border of current Oregon (which we now call the "Northwest").

 

In 1820, the successful "Missouri Compromise" resolved for several decades disputes about whether slavery would be permitted in new territories, and how to admit new states.  This Compromise was between the North and the South, neither of which wanted to give up power by adding a state friendly to the other side.  The Senate was evenly balanced at this time, and adding just one new state on one side would tip the balance in its favor.  At the time there were 11 free states and 11 slave states (notice that, perhaps surprisingly, Delaware and Kentucky were slave states).   

In 1820, the successful "Missouri Compromise" resolved for several decades disputes about whether slavery would be permitted in new territories, and how to admit new states.  This Compromise was between the North and the South, neither of which wanted to give up power by adding a state friendly to the other side.  The Senate was evenly balanced at this time, and adding just one new state on one side would tip the balance in its favor.  At the time there were 11 free states and 11 slave states (notice that, perhaps surprisingly, Delaware and Kentucky were slave states).   

After Monroe served two terms and retired just like Washington, a bitter race for president developed.  Jackson started his own Democratic Party and ran against John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, the son of the former President John Adams.  Other candidates, such as Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky, also ran.  John Quincy Adams, a Democratic-Republican (and later a National Republican), was a former Federalist who supported a strong national government.  He had previously served as a minister to Russia when it acted as mediator to help negotiate the Treaty of Ghent to end the War of 1812.

After Monroe served two terms and retired just like Washington, a bitter race for president developed.  Jackson started his own Democratic Party and ran against John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts, the son of the former President John Adams.  Other candidates, such as Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky, also ran.  John Quincy Adams, a Democratic-Republican (and later a National Republican), was a former Federalist who supported a strong national government.  He had previously served as a minister to Russia when it acted as mediator to help negotiate the Treaty of Ghent to end the War of 1812.

Until 1824 presidential candidates were nominated by congressmen in an informal political meeting called a "caucus" (a favorite political term of John Adams).  The caucus is still used today at some political conventions.  As a presidential candidate in 2008, [[Barack Obama]] did better than [[Hillary Clinton]] in states that used caucuses (rather than an election by voters), which enabled Obama to defeat Clinton for the Democratic nomination despite Clinton having defeated Obama in many states that used open primaries.  But in 1824, all the leading candidates for president were from the same political party (the Democratic-Republican Party), and everyone who was nominated by the congressional caucus was on the ballot on Election Day for the voters to decide.

Until 1824 presidential candidates were nominated by congressmen in an informal political meeting called a "caucus" (a favorite political term of John Adams).  The caucus is still used today at some political conventions.  As a presidential candidate in 2008, [[Barack Obama]] did better than [[Hillary Clinton]] in states that used caucuses (rather than an election by voters), which enabled Obama to defeat Clinton for the Democratic nomination despite Clinton having defeated Obama in many states that used open primaries.  But in 1824, all the leading candidates for president were from the same political party (the Democratic-Republican Party), and everyone who was nominated by the congressional caucus was on the ballot on Election Day for the millions of voters to decide.

 

Jackson won more votes from the public than Adams on Election Day, but not a majority of the Electoral College votes as required to choose a president.  The Electoral College is the system set up by the Constitution whereby special "Electors" from each state cast their ballots for president based on how the people of their state voted, and a candidate must win a majority of the Electoral College to be elected a president.  That minimum number required to win a presidential election is 270 Electoral College votes today.

Jackson won more votes than Adams on Election Day but not enough to become president, so the election went into the House of Representatives.  There Clay apparently struck a private bargain with Adams, whereby Clay persuaded congressmen to vote for Adams, and Adams, after he won, appointed Clay to be Secretary of State.  Supporters of Jackson ("Old Hickory") harshly criticized this as the "corrupt bargain."  Jackson, campaigning four years later against this "corruption", then crushed Adams in the next presidential election.

When no one wins a majority of the Electoral College, as happened in 1824, then the Constitution requires that the election go to the House of Representatives, for it to pick a winner.  There Clay apparently struck a private bargain with Adams, whereby Clay persuaded congressmen to vote for Adams, and Adams, after he won, appointed Clay to be Secretary of State.  Supporters of Jackson ("Old Hickory") harshly criticized this as the "corrupt bargain."  Jackson, campaigning four years later against this "corruption", then crushed Adams in the next presidential election in 1828.

'''Debate:  Is it wrong for a politician to cut a deal with another politician like the "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Clay?'''

'''Debate:  Is it wrong for a politician to cut a deal with another politician like the "corrupt bargain" between Adams and Clay?'''

Another tariff passed in 1828, supported by some Democrats who wanted to anger the public against John Quincy Adams, so that Jackson would win the upcoming presidential election.  Discussed in greater detail below, the supporters of free trade in the South were outraged and called this the Tariff of Abominations.  Andrew Jackson had a political problem in keeping the United States together after he was elected in 1828.

Another tariff passed in 1828, supported by some Democrats who wanted to anger the public against John Quincy Adams, so that Jackson would win the upcoming presidential election.  Discussed in greater detail below, the supporters of free trade in the South were outraged and called this the Tariff of Abominations.  Andrew Jackson had a political problem in keeping the United States together after he was elected in 1828.

After serving only one term as President, John Quincy Adams was remarkable in how he then continued to participate in politics.  While virtually all other presidents and vice presidents felt that Congress was beneath them after they served, John Quincy Adams returned to Congress as a member of the House of Representatives from Massachusetts.  There he fought for 17 more years against slavery and in favor of abolitionism, though the "gag rule" (see below) muzzled his anti-slavery efforts for some of that time.  He also ran unsuccessfully for the position of governor of Massachusetts.  John Quincy Adams eventually died by collapsing on the floor of the House of Representatives as he prepared to give a speech, and is interred in Quincy, Massachusetts.

After serving only one term as President, John Quincy Adams was remarkable in how he then continued to participate in politics.  While virtually all other presidents and vice presidents felt that Congress was beneath them after they served, John Quincy Adams returned to Congress as a member of the House of Representatives from Massachusetts.  There he fought for 17 more years against slavery and in favor of abolitionism, though the "gag rule" (see below) muzzled his anti-slavery efforts for some of that time.  He also ran unsuccessfully for the position of governor of Massachusetts.  John Quincy Adams eventually died by collapsing on the floor of the House of Representatives as he prepared to give a speech, and is interred in Quincy, Massachusetts, which is named after the same ancestor of John Quincy Adams from whom he took his middle name.

== Jacksonian Democracy ==

== Jacksonian Democracy ==

The Democrat Andrew Jackson was the first president to have been born in a log cabin, and he cultivated his image to represent the "common man."  His landslide victory in the presidential election of 1828 was a triumph of democracy -- now called "Jacksonian Democracy" -- because the middle and lower class voters loved Jackson as much as the upper class disliked him.  During his inauguration Jackson welcomed the public into the White House, and the common folk trashed it, with farmers and frontiersmen with muddy boots standing on antique White House furniture that once graced figures like George Washington and Alexander Hamilton.

The Democrat Andrew Jackson was the first president to have been born in a log cabin, and he cultivated his image to represent the "common man."  His landslide victory in the presidential election of 1828 was a triumph of democracy -- now called "Jacksonian Democracy" -- because the middle and lower class voters loved Jackson as much as the upper class disliked him.  During his inauguration Jackson welcomed the public into the White House, and the common folk trashed it, with farmers and frontiersmen with muddy boots standing on antique White House furniture that once graced figures like George Washington and Alexander Hamilton.

There was never a dull moment in the eight years of the Jackson Administration, as he fought with anyone who disagreed with him.  His political opponents began to characterize him as a king or a tyrant, but most voters felt that Jackson was looking out for the public against the self-serving government types.  Jackson was a firm supporter of the "spoils system," which means that "to the victor goes the spoils":  the winner gets to fire all the government workers and replace them with his friends and supporters, no matter how incompetent.  (Today conservatives tend to prefer a spoils system because the alternative of an entrenched bureaucracy unresponsive to voters is worse.)

There was never a dull moment in the eight years of the Jackson Administration, as he fought with anyone who disagreed with him, similar to how President Donald Trump does today.  Jackson's political opponents began to characterize him as a king or a tyrant, but most voters felt that Jackson was looking out for the public against the self-serving government types.  Jackson was a firm supporter of the "spoils system," which means that "to the victor goes the spoils":  the winner gets to fire all the government workers and replace them with his friends and supporters, no matter how incompetent.  (Today conservatives tend to prefer a spoils system because the alternative of an entrenched bureaucracy unresponsive to voters is worse.)

 

Jackson particularly disliked banks, supposedly because a banker refused to give him a loan as a young man.  Jackson vetoed renewal of the national bank, despite the insistence of wealthy bankers (similar to the insistence by Wall Street types today for the $700 billion bailout legislation). Jackson encouraged the expansion of credit (loans to people to buy homes, start businesses, and farm) and speculative investments without a national bank.

President Jackson hated banks, supposedly because a banker refused to give him a loan as a young man.  Jackson vetoed renewal of the national bank, despite the insistence of wealthy bankers. Jackson encouraged the expansion of credit (loans to people to buy homes, start businesses, and farm) and speculative investments without using a national bank.

Jackson vetoed federal road projects because he was a strict constitutionalist:  if the power is not expressly in the Constitution, then it did not exist, Jackson felt.  Jackson's most famous veto of a road construction project was his Maysville Road Veto in 1830, which would have sent money to Kentucky, the State of the influential Senator Henry Clay (known as the "Great Compromiser").  Jackson said there was no ''national'' benefit to justify federal funding for the project.  Obviously future presidents did authorize interstate highways, because there are so many today.

Jackson vetoed federal road projects because he was a strict constructionist:  if the power is not expressly in the Constitution, then it did not exist, Jackson felt.  Jackson's most famous veto of a road construction project was his Maysville Road Veto in 1830, which would have sent money to Kentucky, the State of the influential Senator Henry Clay (known as the "Great Compromiser").  Jackson said there was no ''national'' benefit to justify federal funding for the project.  In contrast, future presidents did authorize interstate highways, because there are so many today.

Jackson disliked others in addition to bankers.  For example, Jackson hated the Indians, and treated them very harshly.  In 1830, Jackson forcibly evicted Indian tribes as part of the "Indian Removal," which increased Jackson's popularity in the Western frontier States having the most conflicts with Indians.

Jackson disliked others in addition to bankers.  For example, Jackson hated American Indians, and treated them very harshly.  In 1830, Jackson forcibly evicted Indian tribes as part of the "Indian Removal," which increased Jackson's popularity in the Western frontier States having the most conflicts with Indians.

Jackson did not care much for Southerners who talked about nullifying federal law or seceding (leaving) the United States.  Jackson, like President Abraham Lincoln 30 years later, was determined to hold the United States together.

Jackson did not care much for Southerners who talked about nullifying federal law or seceding (leaving) the United States.  Jackson, like President Abraham Lincoln 30 years later, was determined to hold the United States together.

This Exposition and Protest embraced the concept of nullification, such that a State, if it decided that a federal law was unconstitutional, could nullify the law and not enforce it within the State.  This Exposition and Protest was then adopted by South Carolina legislature as a formal protest against the federal law, and brought South Carolina a step closer to seceding from (leaving) the United States altogether.  Georgia and Mississippi followed South Carolina in passing resolutions protesting the tariff.

This Exposition and Protest embraced the concept of nullification, such that a State, if it decided that a federal law was unconstitutional, could nullify the law and not enforce it within the State.  This Exposition and Protest was then adopted by South Carolina legislature as a formal protest against the federal law, and brought South Carolina a step closer to seceding from (leaving) the United States altogether.  Georgia and Mississippi followed South Carolina in passing resolutions protesting the tariff.

Calhoun was Jackson's Vice President beginning in 1829, and Jackson was furious at this defiance by a State against federal authority.  At a big political dinner in 1830, Jackson stared down Calhoun with the following toast: "Our Federal Union: It must be Preserved!"<ref name="Toast">http://www.ushistory.org/us/24e.asp</ref>  Calhoun then rose and offered his different view as a toast: "The Union — ''next to our liberty'', the most dear!"<ref name="Toast"/>  Jackson was irritated by this, and by 1832 Jackson would take the unusual step of dropping Calhoun from his ticket and replacing him with a new Vice President when Jackson ran for reelection.

Calhoun was Jackson's Vice President beginning in 1829, and Jackson was furious at this defiance by a State against federal authority.  At a big political dinner in 1830, Jackson stared down Calhoun with the following toast: "Our Federal Union: It must be Preserved!"<ref name="Toast">http://www.ushistory.org/us/24e.asp</ref>  Calhoun then rose and offered his different view as a toast: "The Union — ''next to our liberty'', the most dear!"<ref name="Toast"/>  Jackson was irritated by this, and by 1832 Jackson would take the unusual step of dropping Calhoun from his ticket and replacing him with a new Vice President (Martin Van Buren) when Jackson ran for reelection.

In 1831, gossip and social scandal hit the White House, demonstrating that "National Enquirer" or tabloid-style stories were just as big back then as today.  The White House was like a social club, with members of the President's Cabinet of advisers and their wives being the members of this club.  In what  became known as the "Peggy Eaton Affair," gossip about the wife of the Secretary of War caused others in the Cabinet (and particularly the wives of Cabinet members) to turn against Peggy Eaton and her husband-Secretary of War.  Jackson, who still resented gossip about his now-deceased wife which occurred before he was elected president, instinctively defended Peggy Eaton.  Much of the Cabinet then resigned, forcing Jackson to form an entirely new Cabinet.

In 1831, gossip and social scandal hit the White House, demonstrating that "National Enquirer" or tabloid-style stories were just as big back then as today.  The White House was like a social club, with members of the President's Cabinet of advisers and their wives being the members of this club.  In what  became known as the "Peggy Eaton Affair," gossip about the wife of the Secretary of War caused others in the Cabinet (and particularly the wives of Cabinet members) to turn against Peggy Eaton and her husband-Secretary of War.  Jackson, who still resented gossip about his now-deceased wife which occurred before he was elected president, instinctively defended Peggy Eaton.  Much of the Cabinet then resigned, forcing Jackson to form an entirely new Cabinet.

   

   

The North-South conflict boiled over in late 1832.  The South Carolina legislature went one step further and passed the Ordinance of Nullification, prohibiting the collection of federal duties and declaring that the use of force by the federal government would be justification for South Carolina to secede from the Union.  Jackson issued a proclamation that "disunion by armed force is treason."  But South Carolina remained defiant.  Jackson was furious, declaring that "if a single drop of blood is shed there in opposition to the laws of the United States, then I will hang the first person I can lay my hand on, upon the first tree I can reach."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=_34AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA363&lpg=PA363&dq=%22Andrew+Jackson%22+tree+hang+Calhoun&source=web&ots=Q_px3n4woz&sig=44JZJpNJNxKrQjFAbYlVCj0nv_4&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result "A Students' History of the United States," By Edward Channing]</ref>  In running for reelection, Jackson replaced Calhoun with Martin Van Buren as his Vice President.

The North-South conflict boiled over in late 1832.  The South Carolina legislature went one step further and passed the Ordinance of Nullification, prohibiting the collection of federal duties and declaring that the use of force by the federal government would be justification for South Carolina to secede from the Union.  Jackson issued a proclamation that "disunion by armed force is treason."  But South Carolina remained defiant.  Jackson was furious, declaring that "if a single drop of blood is shed there in opposition to the laws of the United States, then I will hang the first person I can lay my hand on, upon the first tree I can reach."

In early 1833, Jackson requested the Force Bill in order to authorize federal troops to enforce the revenue laws, but Jackson also approved lowering the tariff to appease South Carolina.  South Carolina then suspended its ordinance of nullification and the conflict was defused.

In early 1833, Jackson requested the Force Bill in order to authorize federal troops to enforce the revenue laws, but Jackson also approved lowering the tariff to appease South Carolina.  South Carolina then suspended its ordinance of nullification and the conflict was defused.

Jackson, perhaps more than anyone else, established the powerful tools of the modern presidency.  These included vetoing bills of Congress to prevent them from becoming law (Jackson vetoed more bills than all the presidents before him ''combined''), removing people from office when the President disagreed with them, and using executive orders as President to give his views the power of law.<ref>http://ap.grolier.com/article?assetid=0151440-0</ref>

Jackson, perhaps more than anyone else, established the powerful tools of the modern presidency.  These included vetoing bills of Congress to prevent them from becoming law (Jackson vetoed more bills than all the presidents before him ''combined''), removing people from office when the President disagreed with them, and using executive orders as President to give his views the power of law.<ref>http://ap.grolier.com/article?assetid=0151440-0</ref>

== Post-Jackson ==

== Whig Party ==

 

In the first post-Jackson presidential election, his popularity remained too strong for the Whig Party to defeat.  Martin Van Buren won election as president in 1836 by riding Jackson's "coattails" (i.e., his popularity).  Until the election of Barack Obama as president in 2008, Van Buren was the only president ever elected who was not of predominantly British (including Irish) descent.  But Van Buren was hurt by the financial Panic of 1837.  Some felt that the financial panic was due to a lack of a national bank to prevent many local bank failures.   

In the first post-Jackson presidential election, his popularity remained too strong for the Whig Party to defeat.  Martin Van Buren won election as president in 1836 by riding Jackson's "coattails" (i.e., his popularity).  Until the election of Barack Obama as president in 2008, Van Buren was the only president ever elected who was not of predominantly British (including Scottish and Irish) descent.  But Van Buren was hurt by the financial Panic of 1837.  Some felt that the financial panic was due to a lack of a national bank to prevent many local bank failures.   

Van Buren was defeated for reelection in 1840 by clever slogans created by the Whig Party such as "Van, van the used up man" and "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too!"  (Harrison was a military hero for defeating the Indians at Tippecanoe, and Tyler was his running mate.)

Van Buren was defeated for reelection in 1840 (results are in the image to the right) by clever slogans created by the Whig Party such as "Van, van the used up man" and "Tippecanoe and Tyler Too!"  (Van Buren's opponent William Harrison was a military hero for defeating the Indians at Tippecanoe, and Tyler was his running mate.)

== Slavery 1800-1840 ==

== Slavery 1800-1840 ==

In 1836, Texas fought and won its independence from Mexico.  The Texans sought independence based on Mexico's violation of settlers' rights under Mexico Constitution.  In March of 1836, the Mexicans massacred the Texans at the Alamo (including Davey Crockett, who came from Tennessee to help), but in April the Texans defeated the Mexican army and its General Santa Anna.  Sam Houston was elected the first President of the Republic of Texas (it did not yet join the United States).  General Santa Anna was released from captivity in November of 1836, and traveled to Washington, D.C., to meet with federal officials.<ref>http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/alamo/timeline/timeline2.html</ref>

In 1836, Texas fought and won its independence from Mexico.  The Texans sought independence based on Mexico's violation of settlers' rights under Mexico Constitution.  In March of 1836, the Mexicans massacred the Texans at the Alamo (including Davey Crockett, who came from Tennessee to help), but in April the Texans defeated the Mexican army and its General Santa Anna.  Sam Houston was elected the first President of the Republic of Texas (it did not yet join the United States).  General Santa Anna was released from captivity in November of 1836, and traveled to Washington, D.C., to meet with federal officials.<ref>http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/alamo/timeline/timeline2.html</ref>

There were social changes in the early-to-mid 1800s worth noting.  In 1826, the Lowell System consisted of factory-based cities, with the planning of the city and its housing based on the existence of jobs in the local factory.  Lowell, Massachusetts, was the first example.

There were social changes in the early-to-mid 1800s worth noting.  In 1826, the Lowell System consisted of factory-based cities, with the planning of the city and its housing based on the existence of jobs in the local factory.  Lowell, Massachusetts, was the first example, where the jobs in its textile mills were filled by single, white women from surrounding rural areas.

There were reform movements worth noting: a movement to help the disabled flourished from 1817-1851; a movement to ban alcohol ("prohibition", or the "temperance movement") began in 1826 and lasted until the 18th Amendment passed in 1919 to ban alcohol nationwide (it was later repealed by the 21st Amendment during the [[Great Depression]]); and there were many experimental communities ("utopias") established from the 1820s to the 1840s.  The largest religion founded entirely in America, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon), began during the 1830s; Mitt Romney is one of its leading members and a leading candidate to be elected president in 2012.

There were numerous reform movements worth noting: prison reform which included the elimination of "debtors' prison" (imprisonment of people simply because they could not pay their debts); a movement to help the disabled; a movement to ban alcohol ("prohibition", or the "temperance movement") which began in 1826 and lasted until the 18th Amendment passed in 1919 to ban alcohol nationwide (it was later repealed by the 21st Amendment during the [[Great Depression]]); and many experimental communities ("utopias") established from the 1820s to the 1840s, based on a belief in perfectionism and attempts to create "perfect" communities, which were all unsuccessful.  The largest religion founded entirely in America, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon), began during the 1830s; Mitt Romney is one of its leading members and was the Republican nominee for president in 2012, when he was defeated by Barack Obama.

And the most influential (and perhaps the most harmful) movement of all gained steam in the 1830s: public school education.  Horace Mann, a member of the Whig Party from New England, established the first state school board.  But public school would not reach its full extent as seen today until the 20th century.

And the most influential (and perhaps the most harmful) movement of all gained steam in the 1830s: public school education.  Horace Mann, a member of the Whig Party from New England, established the first state school board.  But public school would not reach its full extent as seen today until the 20th century.

== References ==

== References ==

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[[Category:American History lectures]]

[[Category:American History lectures]]

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