Changes

== Tariffs ==

== Tariffs ==

Throughout the late 1700s and all of the 1800s the federal (national) government raised money for its operations primarily through tariffs, which are taxes on imports.  When a foreign country sent goods to be sold in the United States, our federal government would impose a tariff (tax) on those goods.  The more goods that were imported, the more revenue there would be from the tariffs.  Tariffs were ultimately replaced in the 1900s by the income tax on individuals as the primary means for supporting our government, because President Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) thought tariffs caused conflicts and wars between nations.

Throughout the late 1700s and all of the 1800s the federal (national) government raised money for its operations primarily through tariffs, which are taxes on imports.  When a foreign country sent goods to be sold in the United States, our federal government would impose a tariff (tax) on those goods.  The more goods that were imported, the more revenue there would be from the tariffs.  Tariffs were ultimately replaced in the 1900s by the income tax on individuals as the primary means for supporting our government, because President Woodrow Wilson (1913-1921) thought tariffs caused conflicts and wars between nations.

 

Tariffs helped protect the domestic (United States) businesses by increasing the costs of the foreign competition, and thus are called "protective tariffs."  If you were to own a factory that produces computers, and if there were a tariff imposing a $100 tax on all imported computers, then you would be thrilled because you could undersell the competition and make more profits for your company.  The North liked tariffs because the tariffs protected their manufacturing companies against competition by foreign manufacturers; the South disliked tariffs because it caused their cotton farmers to pay more for equipment, and because foreign nations would retaliate by imposing similar tariffs on the cotton exported by the South, which reduced the southern farmers' revenue.

Tariffs helped protect the domestic (United States) businesses by increasing the costs of the foreign competition, and thus are called "protective tariffs."  If you were to own a factory that produces computers, and if there were a tariff imposing a $100 tax on all imported computers, then you would be thrilled because you could undersell the competition and make more profits for your company.  The North liked tariffs because the tariffs protected their manufacturing companies against competition by foreign manufacturers; the South disliked tariffs because it caused their cotton farmers to pay more for equipment, and because foreign nations would retaliate by imposing similar tariffs on the cotton exported by the South, which reduced the southern farmers' revenue.

In 1803, Jefferson appointed the former '''''anti-Federalist''''' [[James Monroe]] to negotiate terms for the purchase of New Orleans and West Florida from France, and to offer $2 million for this land but to go as high as $10 million if necessary for those two parcels of property.  James Monroe was respected in France; he had even persuaded France to release the American writer Thomas Paine from prison there, where he had been convicted of treason for opposing use of the guillotine during the French Revolution.   

In 1803, Jefferson appointed the former '''''anti-Federalist''''' [[James Monroe]] to negotiate terms for the purchase of New Orleans and West Florida from France, and to offer $2 million for this land but to go as high as $10 million if necessary for those two parcels of property.  James Monroe was respected in France; he had even persuaded France to release the American writer Thomas Paine from prison there, where he had been convicted of treason for opposing use of the guillotine during the French Revolution.   

 

By 1803 [[Napoleon]] had suffered a costly failure in connection with a successful slave revolt in [[Haiti]], and he had decided that France should not try to colonize the New World any further.  So France asked Monroe how much he would pay for ''all of'' France's territory on the North American continent, which included the vast tract of land northwest of Louisiana (stretching all the way along the Missouri River, to what is now Oregon on the Pacific coast).  Monroe was able to negotiate extremely favorable terms of $11.25 million to France for ''all of'' the property (which translates to only a few pennies per acre), and not merely West Florida and New Orleans.  This enormous tract of land was as large as the entire United States at the time.  The overall purchase price was $15 million because Monroe also agreed that the United States would assume nearly $4 million in debts owed by France to American citizens at the time.

By 1803 [[Napoleon]] had suffered a costly failure in connection with a successful slave revolt in [[Haiti]], and he had decided that France should not try to colonize the New World any further.  So France asked Monroe how much he would pay for ''all of'' France's territory on the North American continent, which included the vast tract of land northwest of Louisiana (stretching all the way along the Missouri River, to what is now Oregon on the Pacific coast).  Monroe was able to negotiate extremely favorable terms of $11.25 million to France for ''all of'' the property (which translates to only a few pennies per acre), and not merely West Florida and New Orleans.  This enormous tract of land was as large as the entire United States at the time.  The overall purchase price was $15 million because Monroe also agreed that the United States would assume nearly $4 million in debts owed by France to American citizens at the time.

In 1819, Monroe completed the Adams-Onis Treaty to annex Florida to the United States, and also added property north of the southern border of current Oregon (which we now call the "Northwest").

In 1819, Monroe completed the Adams-Onis Treaty to annex Florida to the United States, and also added property north of the southern border of current Oregon (which we now call the "Northwest").

 

In 1820, the successful "Missouri Compromise" resolved for several decades disputes about whether slavery would be permitted in new territories, and how to admit new states.  This Compromise was between the North and the South, neither of which wanted to give up power by adding a state friendly to the other side.  The Senate was evenly balanced at this time, and adding just one new state on one side would tip the balance in its favor.  At the time there were 11 free states and 11 slave states (notice that, perhaps surprisingly, Delaware and Kentucky were slave states).   

In 1820, the successful "Missouri Compromise" resolved for several decades disputes about whether slavery would be permitted in new territories, and how to admit new states.  This Compromise was between the North and the South, neither of which wanted to give up power by adding a state friendly to the other side.  The Senate was evenly balanced at this time, and adding just one new state on one side would tip the balance in its favor.  At the time there were 11 free states and 11 slave states (notice that, perhaps surprisingly, Delaware and Kentucky were slave states).   

In 1831, gossip and social scandal hit the White House, demonstrating that "National Enquirer" or tabloid-style stories were just as big back then as today.  The White House was like a social club, with members of the President's Cabinet of advisers and their wives being the members of this club.  In what  became known as the "Peggy Eaton Affair," gossip about the wife of the Secretary of War caused others in the Cabinet (and particularly the wives of Cabinet members) to turn against Peggy Eaton and her husband-Secretary of War.  Jackson, who still resented gossip about his now-deceased wife which occurred before he was elected president, instinctively defended Peggy Eaton.  Much of the Cabinet then resigned, forcing Jackson to form an entirely new Cabinet.

In 1831, gossip and social scandal hit the White House, demonstrating that "National Enquirer" or tabloid-style stories were just as big back then as today.  The White House was like a social club, with members of the President's Cabinet of advisers and their wives being the members of this club.  In what  became known as the "Peggy Eaton Affair," gossip about the wife of the Secretary of War caused others in the Cabinet (and particularly the wives of Cabinet members) to turn against Peggy Eaton and her husband-Secretary of War.  Jackson, who still resented gossip about his now-deceased wife which occurred before he was elected president, instinctively defended Peggy Eaton.  Much of the Cabinet then resigned, forcing Jackson to form an entirely new Cabinet.

   

   

The North-South conflict boiled over in late 1832.  The South Carolina legislature went one step further and passed the Ordinance of Nullification, prohibiting the collection of federal duties and declaring that the use of force by the federal government would be justification for South Carolina to secede from the Union.  Jackson issued a proclamation that "disunion by armed force is treason."  But South Carolina remained defiant.  Jackson was furious, declaring that "if a single drop of blood is shed there in opposition to the laws of the United States, then I will hang the first person I can lay my hand on, upon the first tree I can reach."<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=_34AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA363&lpg=PA363&dq=%22Andrew+Jackson%22+tree+hang+Calhoun&source=web&ots=Q_px3n4woz&sig=44JZJpNJNxKrQjFAbYlVCj0nv_4&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=5&ct=result "A Students' History of the United States," By Edward Channing]</ref>

The North-South conflict boiled over in late 1832.  The South Carolina legislature went one step further and passed the Ordinance of Nullification, prohibiting the collection of federal duties and declaring that the use of force by the federal government would be justification for South Carolina to secede from the Union.  Jackson issued a proclamation that "disunion by armed force is treason."  But South Carolina remained defiant.  Jackson was furious, declaring that "if a single drop of blood is shed there in opposition to the laws of the United States, then I will hang the first person I can lay my hand on, upon the first tree I can reach."

In early 1833, Jackson requested the Force Bill in order to authorize federal troops to enforce the revenue laws, but Jackson also approved lowering the tariff to appease South Carolina.  South Carolina then suspended its ordinance of nullification and the conflict was defused.

In early 1833, Jackson requested the Force Bill in order to authorize federal troops to enforce the revenue laws, but Jackson also approved lowering the tariff to appease South Carolina.  South Carolina then suspended its ordinance of nullification and the conflict was defused.

In 1836, Texas fought and won its independence from Mexico.  The Texans sought independence based on Mexico's violation of settlers' rights under Mexico Constitution.  In March of 1836, the Mexicans massacred the Texans at the Alamo (including Davey Crockett, who came from Tennessee to help), but in April the Texans defeated the Mexican army and its General Santa Anna.  Sam Houston was elected the first President of the Republic of Texas (it did not yet join the United States).  General Santa Anna was released from captivity in November of 1836, and traveled to Washington, D.C., to meet with federal officials.<ref>http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/alamo/timeline/timeline2.html</ref>

In 1836, Texas fought and won its independence from Mexico.  The Texans sought independence based on Mexico's violation of settlers' rights under Mexico Constitution.  In March of 1836, the Mexicans massacred the Texans at the Alamo (including Davey Crockett, who came from Tennessee to help), but in April the Texans defeated the Mexican army and its General Santa Anna.  Sam Houston was elected the first President of the Republic of Texas (it did not yet join the United States).  General Santa Anna was released from captivity in November of 1836, and traveled to Washington, D.C., to meet with federal officials.<ref>http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/alamo/timeline/timeline2.html</ref>

There were social changes in the early-to-mid 1800s worth noting.  In 1826, the Lowell System consisted of factory-based cities, with the planning of the city and its housing based on the existence of jobs in the local factory.  Lowell, Massachusetts, was the first example.

There were social changes in the early-to-mid 1800s worth noting.  In 1826, the Lowell System consisted of factory-based cities, with the planning of the city and its housing based on the existence of jobs in the local factory.  Lowell, Massachusetts, was the first example, where the jobs in its textile mills were filled by single, white women from surrounding rural areas.

There were reform movements worth noting: a movement to help the disabled flourished from 1817-1851; a movement to ban alcohol ("prohibition", or the "temperance movement") began in 1826 and lasted until the 18th Amendment passed in 1919 to ban alcohol nationwide (it was later repealed by the 21st Amendment during the [[Great Depression]]); and there were many experimental communities ("utopias") established from the 1820s to the 1840s.  The largest religion founded entirely in America, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon), began during the 1830s; Mitt Romney is one of its leading members and was the Republican nominee for president in 2012, when he was defeated by Barack Obama.

There were numerous reform movements worth noting: prison reform which included the elimination of "debtors' prison" (imprisonment of people simply because they could not pay their debts); a movement to help the disabled; a movement to ban alcohol ("prohibition", or the "temperance movement") which began in 1826 and lasted until the 18th Amendment passed in 1919 to ban alcohol nationwide (it was later repealed by the 21st Amendment during the [[Great Depression]]); and many experimental communities ("utopias") established from the 1820s to the 1840s, based on a belief in perfectionism and attempts to create "perfect" communities, which were all unsuccessful.  The largest religion founded entirely in America, the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon), began during the 1830s; Mitt Romney is one of its leading members and was the Republican nominee for president in 2012, when he was defeated by Barack Obama.

And the most influential (and perhaps the most harmful) movement of all gained steam in the 1830s: public school education.  Horace Mann, a member of the Whig Party from New England, established the first state school board.  But public school would not reach its full extent as seen today until the 20th century.

And the most influential (and perhaps the most harmful) movement of all gained steam in the 1830s: public school education.  Horace Mann, a member of the Whig Party from New England, established the first state school board.  But public school would not reach its full extent as seen today until the 20th century.

== References ==

== References ==