Changes

==Relationship to pagan festivals==

==Relationship to pagan festivals==

In an essay published in 1889, German scholar Hermann Usener argued that Christmas is an "appropriation" of an earlier pagan festival.<ref>Usener's views are foreshadowed in two essays by P.E. Jablonski (1693-1757). (Hijmans, p. 584.)</ref> According to Usener, the Church placed Christmas on December 25 as a kind of marketing strategy to absorb the pagan solstice festival ''Dies Natalis Sol Invicti'' into Christianity.

In an essay published in 1889, German scholar Hermann Usener argued that Christmas is an "appropriation" of an earlier pagan festival.<ref>Usener's views are foreshadowed in two essays by P.E. Jablonski (1693-1757). (Hijmans, p. 584.)</ref> According to Usener, the Church placed Christmas on December 25 as a kind of marketing strategy to absorb the pagan solstice festival ''Dies Natalis Sol Invicti'' into Christianity.

Hijmans examined a homily that Usener quoted to support his pagan origin theory and found that it fits better with a solstice origin.<ref>This homily was written in the early fourth century and is entitled ''De solstitia et aequinoctia conceptionis et nativitatis domini nostri iesu christi et iohannis baptistae.''</ref> The homily not only connects the birth of Jesus to the winter solstice, it also placed the birthday of John the Baptist on the summer solstice. Usener cites this homily for an aside that mentioned that December 25 is the birthday of Sol Invictus. But this is done only to argue that the pagan festival is of no significance.<ref>Hijmans, p. 594.</ref>

Hijmans examined a homily that Usener quoted to support his pagan origin theory and found that it fits better with a solstice origin.<ref>This homily was written in the early fourth century and is entitled ''De solstitia et aequinoctia conceptionis et nativitatis domini nostri iesu christi et iohannis baptistae.''</ref> The homily not only connects the birth of Jesus to the winter solstice, it also placed the birthday of John the Baptist on the summer solstice. Usener cites this homily for an aside that mentioned that December 25 is the birthday of Sol Invictus. But this is done only to argue that the pagan festival is of no significance.<ref>Hijmans, p. 594.</ref>

The end of the year was a season of varied celebration in pagan Rome. Saturnalia began on December 17 and lasted for three to five days. It was followed by ''Dies Natalis Solis Invicti'' on December 25 and Kalends on January 1 to January 4. Saturnalia was exclusive to Italy while Sol was a sun god associated with emperors [[Aurelian]] and [[Constantine]].

The end of the year was a season of varied celebration in pagan Rome. Saturnalia began on December 17 and lasted for three to five days. It was followed by ''Dies Natalis Solis Invicti'' on December 25 and Kalends on January 1 to January 4. Saturnalia was exclusive to Italy while Sol was a sun god associated with emperors [[Aurelian]] and [[Constantine]].

Both Saturnalia and Sol Invictus were overshadowed by Kalends, a new year celebration. While there is no trace of either Saturalia or Sol Invictus persisting into Christian times, various churchmen noted how difficult it was to suppress Kalends.<ref>"In 578 CE a church Council at Auxerre, Burgundy, forbade disguisings, and another Council, in the year 614, stated it was “unlawful to make any indecent plays upon the Kalends of January, according to the profane practices of the pagans.” (Pennick, Nigel, ''[https://books.google.ca/books?isbn=1620553902 Pagan Magic of the Northern Tradition: Customs, Rites, and Ceremonies]'', 2015.)</ref> The Roman end-of-year celebrations transferred to [[Epiphany]] in the Early Middle Ages and later to the Twelve Days of Christmas.

Both Saturnalia and Sol Invictus were overshadowed by Kalends, a new year celebration. While there is no trace of either Saturalia or Sol Invictus persisting into Christian times, various churchmen noted how difficult it was to suppress Kalends.<ref>"In 578 CE a church Council at Auxerre, Burgundy, forbade disguisings, and another Council, in the year 614, stated it was “unlawful to make any indecent plays upon the Kalends of January, according to the profane practices of the pagans.” (Pennick, Nigel, ''[https://books.google.ca/books?isbn=1620553902 Pagan Magic of the Northern Tradition: Customs, Rites, and Ceremonies]'', 2015.)</ref> The Roman end-of-year celebrations transferred to [[Epiphany]] in the Early Middle Ages and later to the Twelve Days of Christmas.

The connection between Christmas and Yule, a Scandinavian pagan holiday, is often misunderstand. Writing in the eighth century, [[Bede]] did not know Yule as a holiday. He refers to it only as a month of the Anglo-Saxon calendar.<ref>"[http://www.roger-pearse.com/weblog/2012/01/20/bede-on-yule/ Bede on Yule]"</ref> Christmas was popularized by Charlemagne's coronation in 800. As Yule did not appear as a festival until later, it was likely created in response to Christmas. When the Christian calendar was introduced to Scandinavia, King Haakon I (r. 934–961) of Norway assigned Yule to December 25 to correspond with the date of Christmas, according to the account of Snorri Sturluson.<ref>"[Hakon] made a law that the festival of Yule should begin at the same time Christian people held it, and that every man, under penalty, should brew a meal of malt and ale, and therewith keep the Yule holy as long as it lasted." (Snorri Sturluson, ''Heimskringla, or the Chronicle of the Kings of Norway'', "Hakon the Good's Saga," Chapter 15.)</ref>

The connection between Christmas and Yule, a Scandinavian pagan holiday, is often misunderstand. Writing in the eighth century, [[Bede]] did not know Yule as a holiday. He refers to it only as a month of the Anglo-Saxon calendar.<ref>"[http://www.roger-pearse.com/weblog/2012/01/20/bede-on-yule/ Bede on Yule]"</ref> Christmas was popularized by Charlemagne's coronation in 800. As Yule did not appear as a festival until later, it was likely created in response to Christmas. When the Christian calendar was introduced to Scandinavia, King Haakon I (r. 934–961) of Norway assigned Yule to December 25 to correspond with the date of Christmas, according to a saga by Snorri Sturluson.{{cquote|[Hakon] made a law that the festival of Yule should begin at the same time Christian people held it, and that every man, under penalty, should brew a meal of malt and ale, and therewith keep the Yule holy as long as it lasted.<ref>Snorri Sturluson, ''Heimskringla, or the Chronicle of the Kings of Norway'', "Hakon the Good's Saga," Chapter 15.</ref>}}

==Modern-day cultural significance==

==Modern-day cultural significance==