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| − | [[File:Hon. Roscoe Conkling, N.Y.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Sen. Roscoe Conkling, a staunch conservative who led the congressional Stalwarts.]]
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| − | '''Stalwart''' is a term used to describe the [[conservative]]<ref name=encyclopedia.combasicinfo>[https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/stalwarts Stalwarts]. ''Encyclopedia.com''. Retrieved August 25, 2021.</ref> wing of the [[Republican Party]] during the [[Gilded Age]] that stood firmly for equal rights for [[African American]]s and opposed [[Jim Crow]] and the [[Ku Klux Klan]]. From 1877–81, they opposed the Jim Crow Democrats' efforts to rebuild the [[Democratic Party]] in the post-[[American Civil War|Civil War]] era with a [[civil service system]] that discriminated against [[black]]s, instead favoring the traditional [[spoils system]].<ref name=trumpchristie>Matthews, Dylan (July 20, 2016). [https://www.vox.com/2016/7/20/12233454/christie-trump-purge-federal-employees Donald Trump and Chris Christie are reportedly planning to purge the civil service]. ''Vox''. Retrieved December 21, 2021.</ref>
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| − | Opposing the Stalwarts were the congressional [[Half-Breeds]], [[Moderate Republican]]s who supported civil service reform in the name of supposed "integrity" and at the expense of blacks.<ref name=trumpchristie/>
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| − | The Stalwarts led by [[Senator]] [[Roscoe Conkling]] of [[New York]].<ref name=npsinfo>[https://www.nps.gov/articles/000/stalwarts-half-breeds-and-political-assassination.htm Stalwarts, Half Breeds, and Political Assassination]. ''National Park Service''. Retrieved December 21, 2021.</ref><ref name=garfieldandarthur>Weisberger, Bernard A. [https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/james-garfield-and-chester-arthur James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur]. ''Encyclopedia.com''. Retrieved December 21, 2021.</ref> Other members included:
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| − | *[[Vice President]] [[Levi P. Morton]]
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| − | *Illinois congressman and senator [[John A. Logan]]
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| − | *New York senator [[Thomas C. Platt]]
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| − | *New Jersey senator [[Frederick T. Frelinghuysen]]<ref>May 21, 1885. [https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1885/05/21/103016659.pdf Death of Mr. Frelinghuysen.] ''The New York Times''. Retrieved November 8, 2021.</ref><ref>Weisberger, Bernard A. [https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/james-garfield-and-chester-arthur James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur]. ''Encyclopedia.com''. Retrieved November 8, 2021.</ref>
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| − | *Conkling ally, vice president and president [[Chester A. Arthur]]
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| − | *[[Republican National Convention]] chairman J. Donald Cameron
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| − | *Tennessee congressman [[Leonidas C. Houk]]<ref>[https://prabook.com/web/leonidas.houk/3759312 Leonidas Campbell Houk]. ''Prabook''. Retrieved August 25, 2021.</ref>
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| − | *Iowa senator [[William B. Allison]]
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| − | *North Carolina congressman [[Orlando Hubbs]]<ref group=note>It is not known if any documented sources officially list Hubbs as a Stalwart Republican, though his support for patronage and stubborn vote against the Pendleton Act signifies his viewpoints shared that of the faction.</ref><div style=height:5px></div>
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| − | ==Background==
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| − | The Stalwarts in essence succeeded the powerful bloc of [[Radical Republicans]], who during the presidency of [[Ulysses S. Grant]] shepherded the passage of major legislation to combat Democratic Party terrorism, particularly the Enforcement Acts (known as the Ku Klux Klan Act). Not all Radical Republicans would join the Stalwarts, though many prominent members did out of continued sympathy for the plight of Southern blacks.<ref group=note>A small number of Radical Republicans joined the Half-Breeds faction, such as George F. Hoar. Those who broke early on tended to ally with the Liberal Republican Party revolt in 1872, such as Horace Greeley and Lyman Trumbull.</ref> Examples include:
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| − | *Sen. Roscoe Conkling of New York
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| − | *Sen. Frederick T. Frelinghuysen of New Jersey
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| − | *Sen. Oliver P. Morton of Indiana
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| − | *Sen. Zachariah Chandler of Michigan
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| − | *Rep. Benjamin F. Butler of Massachusetts
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| − | ==Ideology==
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| − | The Stalwarts were considered a largely conservative faction,<ref name=encyclopedia.combasicinfo/> and for the most part held the following positions:
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| − | *opposition to civil service reform efforts<ref name=encyclopedia.combasicinfo/>
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| − | *adamant support for black male suffrage<ref name=encyclopedia.combasicinfo/>
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| − | *support for Southern carpetbag and black Republican-led governments<ref name=garfieldandarthur/>
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| − | *backing of higher protective tariffs<ref name=garfieldandarthur/>
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| − | *support for "hard money" (money backed by gold) as opposed to "soft money"<ref name=garfieldandarthur/>
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| − | *a tendency to "wave the bloody shirt"<ref name=npsinfo/><ref name=garfieldandarthur/><ref group=note>This tactic referred to campaigning against the Democrats as the party of the Confederacy and denouncing them for the bloodiness of the American Civil War.</ref>
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| − | However, not all Stalwarts were necessarily conservative. Benjamin Butler's alliance with the faction was attributed to his staunch pro-civil rights and pro-spoils system stance, though sharply differed with the likes of Conkling on economics, where he increasingly turned left in his support for greenbacks. John A. Logan, an Illinois Stalwart, wavered on monetary policy and supported lower tariffs.
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| − | ==Timeline==
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| − | ===Hayes presidency===
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| − | ====Conkling rebukes Hayes in Port Collector fight====
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| − | The Collector of the Port of New York was a powerful and prized political position, with the officeholder being able to control a central location of trade between the United States and other nations.<ref name=npsinfo/> New York had for many years hitherto been managed by the powerful patronage machine of Sen. Conkling, and Half-Breeds vied for control.
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| − | President Hayes attempted to wrest control of the Port from Conkling to no avail, twice picking his own political acolytes to the post only to have the nominations defeated in the Senate by the New York senator, who successfully rallied Republicans to his side.<ref name=npsinfo/> Conkling then managed to secure the position for close machine ally and future president [[Chester Arthur]].
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| − | ====Hayes and Sherman fire Arthur====
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| − | Arthur's tenure was marked with corruption and extensive preference of party loyalties over qualifications. He was known to have turned a blind eye to corruption in the New York Customs House,<ref name=npsinfo/> in addition to hiring thousands of Republicans for government jobs simply because they were Republicans.
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| − | In 1878, President Hayes and Secretary of the Treasury [[John Sherman]], a Half-Breed, fired Arthur.<ref name=npsinfo/>
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| − | ===1880: Stalwarts push for unprecedented third Grant term===
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| − | Hayes' actions as president alienated not only congressional Stalwarts, but Half-Breeds as well.<ref name=garfieldandarthur/> In the [[United States presidential election, 1880|1880 presidential election]], Stalwarts led by Conkling successfully urged former Radical Republican president [[Ulysses Grant]] to seek a non-consecutive, third term.<ref name=npsinfo/> Half-Breeds coalesced around Maine senator [[James G. Blaine]], who opposed civil service reform<ref name=garfieldandarthur/><ref group=note>A common narrative goes as follows: "Blaine was the leader of the Half-Breeds who supported civil service reform." This is despite Blaine not taking part in Half-Breed politics during the Hayes presidency, in addition to his opposition to civil service reform despite what the narrative implies.</ref> though aligned with the moderate faction with his viewpoints on industrial interests and protective tariffs.
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| − | Although Grant had previously pushed for some degree of civil service reform as president, he became disenchanted with Hayes' efforts to effectively dismantle the Stalwarts' patronage machines.<ref name=npsinfo/> Conkling, who previously was a close ally to Grant during the latter's presidency, once again became a right-hand man.
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| − | At the Republican National Convention, the Half-Breeds' will to block a nomination of Grant matched that of the Stalwarts' opposition towards Blaine.<ref name=npsinfo/> Neither of the two had enough support as a result of the factionalism, and the results of the first few ballots signified a deadlock. Half-Breeds then successfully maneuvered to nominate Ohio Republican [[James Garfield]] on the thirty-sixth ballot,<ref name=garfieldandarthur/> who was sufficiently favorable in their eyes.<ref name=npsinfo/> This was attributed to Garfield's flexible positions on tariffs and civil service reform while simultaneously sharing the Stalwarts' "waving the bloody shirt" tactics and monetary policy positions.<ref name=garfieldandarthur/>
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| − | For the vice presidential pick, Garfield at first proposed nominating Treasury of the Secretary John Sherman, a staunch Half-Breed, Moderate Republican, and supporter of civil service reform who Stalwarts loathed.<ref name=npsinfo/> In an appeal to party unity for both factions to be somewhat pleased, Conkling ally Chester "Chet" Arthur became Garfield's running mate, to the horror of Half-Breeds who pejoratively dubbed him as Conkling's "creature."<ref name=garfieldandarthur/> The pair narrowly would win the general election in November that year.
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| − | ===Conkling and Platt fail to rebuke Garfield===
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| − | Although Garfield had initially vowed to meet Stalwart patronage demands, he turned his back on Conkling and claimed he never agreed to specific promises. Garfield nominated for New York Collector of the Port [[William H. Robertson]],<ref name=npsinfo/> a Half-Breed who opposed Grant in 1880. This elicited Conkling's fury, as traditionally presidential appointments for a state would first "require" the approval of the respective state's U.S. senators.
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| − | Conkling, enraged at Garfield, devised a plan that, if successful, would demonstrate New York Republicans were loyal to him and not the president. He convinced his Stalwart senatorial colleague [[Thomas C. Platt]] that they would both suddenly resign from the Senate, under the guise the state legislature would immediately elect them to their posts.<ref name=npsinfo/>
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| − | However, the New York legislature, controlled by Half-Breeds, thwarted Conkling and Platt by refusing to elect the pair.<ref name=npsinfo/><ref name=garfieldandarthur/> Conkling subsequently quit politics, though Platt would return to the Senate years after the Stalwarts effectively collapsed. After this point, the term "Stalwart" fell out of designation as a political term.<ref name=encyclopedia.combasicinfo/>
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| − | ===Garfield assassination, backlash against Stalwarts===
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| − | A mentally ill and disgruntled former Democrat, [[Charles J. Guiteau]], believed he could easily obtain a high-ranking government post through the spoils system.<ref name=npsinfo/> In the 1880 election, he initially prepared a speech to be given in front of a large crowd in support of Grant, believing the latter would be nominated. After Garfield was picked instead, Guiteau simply replaced all mentions of "Grant" with "Garfield."<ref name=npsinfo/> Subsequent to excessively pleading Republican leaders for a chance to give the speech, he only delivered it to a small crowd that was puzzled rather than roaring with applause.
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| − | Following Garfield's narrow victory, the deluded Guiteau believed the election result was attributed to his speech, and thus believed that he was deserving of a position in the new presidential administration.<ref name=npsinfo/> He sought a consulship to [[Paris]], though faced disappointment upon arriving at [[Washington, D.C.]] when he was viewed merely as a nuisance. Blaine, who became [[Secretary of State]], snapped at Guiteau:<ref name=npsinfo/>
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| − | {{cquote|Do not ask me about the Paris consulship ever again!}}
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| − | Guiteau's realization that the spoils system was faltering following his inability to obtain a government position led to him to believe patronage could be saved by removing Garfield from the White House.<ref name=npsinfo/> He stalked the president for several days before shooting him on July 2, 1881. When caught at the scene (where Blaine and [[Robert Todd Lincoln]] was present) and dragged away, Guiteau exclaimed:<ref name=npsinfo/>
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| − | {{cquote|I am a Stalwart of the Stalwarts. Arthur is now president!}}
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| − | The mentally ill Guiteau then believed that Garfield's Stalwart successor Chester Arthur would be grateful and "reward" him with a government position, which did not happen.<ref name=npsinfo/> Following Garfield's death after a botched hospital treatment, Guiteau exclaimed in court:
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| − | {{cquote|The doctors did that. I merely shot at him.}}
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| − | Guiteau was found guilty of the assassination and sentenced to death by hanging.<ref name=npsinfo/>
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| − | ===Arthur signs the Pendleton Act===
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| − | The newly sworn president, Arthur, was expected by many to act on his Stalwart roots against civil service reform.<ref name=garfieldandarthur/> Congressional Half-Breeds in addition to a number of Jim Crow Democrats led by [[Ohio]] senator [[George H. Pendleton]] drafted and pushed through the [[Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act]], which itself only dealt with 11% of federal employee posts though created a Civil Service Commission to dismantle patronage machines over time.<ref name=garfieldandarthur/>
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| − | The assassination of Garfield only embarrassed the Stalwarts, whose leader Conkling elicited blame for Guiteau's actions. As the nation turned to support a new era governed in part by a civil service system rather than patronage politics, the vast majority of Stalwart Republicans voted for the Pendleton Act. No Senate Republican voted against the bill,<ref>[https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/47-2/s646 TO PASS S. 133.] ''GovTrack.us''. Retrieved December 21, 2021.</ref> and GOP House opposition came from only seven members:<ref>[https://www.govtrack.us/congress/votes/47-2/h272 TO PASS S. 133, A BILL REGULATING AND IMPROVING THE U. S. CIVIL SERVICE. (J.P. 163).] ''GovTrack.us''. Retrieved December 21, 2021.</ref>
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| − | *Benjamin F. Marsh of Illinois' 10th congressional district
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| − | *[[John R. Thomas]] of Illinois' 18th congressional district, later a district judge for Indian Territory
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| − | *George W. Steele of Indiana's 11th congressional district, later a brief governor of Oklahoma Territory in the 1890s
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| − | *Orlando Hubbs of North Carolina's 2nd congressional district, a [[carpetbagger]] who was relatively pro-civil rights and utilized patronage to benefit political friends<ref>Anderson, Eric D. (1988). [https://www.ncpedia.org/biography/hubbs-orlando Hubbs, Orlando]. ''NCPedia''. Retrieved December 21, 2021.</ref>
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| − | *James S. Robinson of Ohio's 9th congressional district
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| − | *Robert Smalls of South Carolina's 5th congressional district, maritime pilot in the Civil War and former slave
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| − | *[[William R. Moore]] of Tennessee's 10th congressional district, businessman and [[entrepreneur]] who founded the William R. Moore College of Technology
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| − | Arthur ultimately surprised many observers by signing the Pendleton Act into law,<ref name=garfieldandarthur/> which effectively marked the end of patronage Republicans could have used to benefit blacks.
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| − | ==References==
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| − | {{reflist}}
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| − | ===notes===
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| − | {{reflist1904|group=note}}
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| − | [[Category:United States History]]
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| − | [[Category:United States Politics]]
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| − | [[Category:Republican Party]]
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| − | [[Category:Reconstruction]]
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| − | [[Category:Gilded Age]]
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| − | [[Category:Civil Rights]]
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| − | [[Category:Black History]]
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| − | [[Category:Conservatives]]
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