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[[Image:LouisXIV.jpg|thumb|300px|right|King Louis XIV of France and Navarre, by [[Hyacinthe Rigaud]]]]

[[Image:LouisXIV.jpg|thumb|301px|right|King Louis XIV of France and Navarre, by [[Hyacinthe Rigaud]]]]

'''Louis XIV''' (1638-1715), the "The Sun King" (''Roi soleil''), was the king of [[France]] from childhood to old age, 1643 to 1715.  He ruled France as an absolute monarch--"l'état, c'est moi" ("I am the state."). He was famous for his lavish entertainments at the [[Palace of Versailles]] near [[Paris]]. He ruled the most powerful and grandiose nation in Europe. His 72-year reign, the longest in French history, was superficially splendid but basically disastrous for France because of expensive foreign wars. His France dominated European cultural and political affairs. Louis typified the absolute monarchy of the Neoclassical age, established a sumptuous court at [[Versailles]], and fought most of Europe in four wars. Louis XIV dominated French culture by gaining international recognition of French arts, literature, and science, drastically transformed medieval France and introduced a more refined, sophisticated style of life.  

'''Louis XIV''' (1638-1715), the "The Sun King" (''Roi soleil''), was the king of [[France]] from childhood to old age, 1643 to 1715.  He ruled France as an absolute monarch--"l'état, c'est moi" ("I am the state."). He was famous for his lavish entertainments at the [[Palace of Versailles]] near [[Paris]]. He ruled the most powerful and grandiose nation in Europe. His 72-year reign, the longest in French history, was superficially splendid but basically disastrous for France because of expensive foreign wars. His France dominated European cultural and political affairs. Louis typified the absolute monarchy of the Neoclassical age, established a sumptuous court at [[Versailles]], and fought most of Europe in four wars. Louis XIV dominated French culture by gaining international recognition of French arts, literature, and science, drastically transformed medieval France and introduced a more refined, sophisticated style of life.  

==Early life==

==Early life==

Louis XIV was born to [[Louis XIII]] and [[Anne of Austria]] at the royal Château Saint-Germain-en-Laye on September 5, 1638 and was christened Louis Dieudonné ("gift of God"), as his parents had been childless for twenty-two years. Even so, he was a neglected child and was kept under the care of servants. He succeeded his father on the throne at the age of four on May 14, 1643. His mother, Anne of Austria (a Spanish Hapsburg), served as a regent, ruling France in his place with the assistance of Italian-born Cardinal [[Mazarin]], who had been chief minister and tutor of five-year-old Louis. In 1648, the [[Thirty Years' War]] was brought to a successful conclusion in the [[Peace of Westphalia]] by Mazarin. The treaty ensured Dutch independence from [[Spain]] and the independence of German princes in the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. But France gained the most out of the treaty. All [[Habsburg]] claims in Alsace were ceded to France, as well as German states under Habsburg rule. The Peace of Westphalia severely weakened both the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburgs. In the closing years of the Thirty Years' War, the [[Fronde]] (1648–53) broke out, in which the aristocrats of Paris launched a major revolt in reaction the policies of centralization pursued by [[Cardinal Richelieu]] and Mazarin. The royal court was twice driven out of the kingdom. Louis, nine-years-old at the time, faced hunger, poverty, fear, and misfortune during the revolts. The revolts caused the young king to develop a fear of rebellion that he would keep for the rest of his life. He also would never forgive Paris and the nobles and would live in the royal palace of Versailles outside of Paris for much of his reign.  

Louis XIV was born to Louis XIII and Anne of Austria at the royal Château Saint-Germain-en-Laye on September 5, 1638 and was christened Louis Dieudonné ("gift of God"), as his parents had been childless for twenty-two years. Even so, he was a neglected child and was kept under the care of servants. He succeeded his father on the throne at the age of four on May 14, 1643. His mother, Anne of Austria (a Spanish Hapsburg), served as a regent, ruling France in his place with the assistance of Italian-born Cardinal [[Mazarin]], who had been chief minister and tutor of five-year-old Louis. In 1648, the [[Thirty Years' War]] was brought to a successful conclusion in the [[Peace of Westphalia]] by Mazarin. The treaty ensured Dutch independence from [[Spain]] and the independence of German princes in the [[Holy Roman Empire]]. But France gained the most out of the treaty. All [[Habsburg]] claims in Alsace were ceded to France, as well as German states under Habsburg rule. The Peace of Westphalia severely weakened both the Holy Roman Empire and the Habsburgs. In the closing years of the Thirty Years' War, the Fronde (1648–53) broke out, in which the aristocrats of Paris launched a major revolt in reaction the policies of centralization pursued by Cardinal Richelieu and Mazarin. The royal court was twice driven out of the kingdom. Louis, nine-years-old at the time, faced hunger, poverty, fear, and misfortune during the revolts. The revolts caused the young king to develop a fear of rebellion that he would keep for the rest of his life. He also would never forgive Paris and the nobles and would live in the royal palace of Versailles outside of Paris for much of his reign.  

Mazarin, having been victorious over the rebels in 1653, sought to teach the young king his knowledge of foreign policies and diplomatic relations. The [[Thirty Years' War]] had ended for the most part, except for the war between France and Spain, whose outcome would transfer hegemony from the Habsburgs to the Bourbons. In 1658, Louis had fallen in love with Mazarin's niece, Marie Mancini. But he instead married for diplomatic reasons, marrying Marie-Thérèse, daughter of the king of Spain, in 1660 in order to bring peace to the two warring countries and conclude the [[Treaty of the Pyrenees]].<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'' (1968) p 117-8</ref>

Mazarin, having been victorious over the rebels in 1653, sought to teach the young king his knowledge of foreign policies and diplomatic relations. The [[Thirty Years' War]] had ended for the most part, except for the war between France and Spain, whose outcome would transfer hegemony from the Habsburgs to the Bourbons. In 1658, Louis had fallen in love with Mazarin's niece, Marie Mancini. But he instead married for diplomatic reasons, marrying Marie-Thérèse, daughter of the king of Spain, in 1660 in order to bring peace to the two warring countries and conclude the Treaty of the Pyrenees.<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'' (1968) p 117-8</ref>

Louis XIV married Marie Therese of Spain.

Louis XIV married Marie Therese of Spain.

==The European Wars==

==The European Wars==

Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, Louis believed that war was the most perfect way to define his glory, that peacetime should be spent preparing for the next war, and that his diplomats' major function was to provide France with tactical or strategic advantages.<ref>James Nathan, "Force, Order, and Diplomacy in the Age of Louis XIV," ''Virginia Quarterly Review'' 1993 69(4): 633-649. Issn: 0042-675x Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

Impelled by a mix of commerce, revenge, and pique, Louis believed that war was the most perfect way to define his glory, that peacetime should be spent preparing for the next war, and that his diplomats' major function was to provide France with tactical or strategic advantages.<ref>James Nathan, "Force, Order, and Diplomacy in the Age of Louis XIV," ''Virginia Quarterly Review'' 1993 69(4): 633-649. Issn: 0042-675x Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]</ref>

    

    

===The War of Devolution, 1667-1668===

===The War of Devolution, 1667-1668===

Louis' first important international venture was a small "War of Devolution" in 1667-68 begun with his seizure in 1667 of a part of the Spanish succession lands.<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'' (1968) p 199-212</ref>  His weak justification was that his wife Maria Theresa should receive all territory in the Spanish Netherlands in which, by local law or custom, private property devolved on a daughter by a first marriage in preference to a son by a second. Before there was time to object that laws about division of private property had nothing to do with succession to national territory, Louis sent Turenne with 35,000 troops to invade the Spanish Netherlands; Turenne captured a series of important cities (May 1667). Against this threat to the stability of Europe the [[Triple Alliance]] was formed in January 1668 by England, the Dutch United Provinces, and Sweden. But within a few weeks the French general Condé and his army captured Franche-Comté, on the eastern border of France. At the same time Louis signed a secret treaty with the Emperor Leopold dividing the Spanish possessions between them, to be carried into effect on the death of Charles II of Spain. With this trump card up his sleeve Louis accepted the [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle]] (May 1668), by which he surrendered Franche-Comté but retained some of his Flemish conquests, including Lille.

Louis' first important international venture was a small "War of Devolution" in 1667-68 begun with his seizure in 1667 of a part of the Spanish succession lands.<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'' (1968) p 199-212</ref>  His weak justification was that his wife Maria Theresa should receive all territory in the Spanish Netherlands in which, by local law or custom, private property devolved on a daughter by a first marriage in preference to a son by a second. Before there was time to object that laws about division of private property had nothing to do with succession to national territory, Louis sent Turenne with 35,000 troops to invade the Spanish Netherlands; Turenne captured a series of important cities (May 1667). Against this threat to the stability of Europe the [[Triple Alliance]] was formed in January 1668 by England, the Dutch United Provinces, and Sweden. But within a few weeks the French general Condé and his army captured Franche-Comté, on the eastern border of France. At the same time Louis signed a secret treaty with the Emperor Leopold dividing the Spanish possessions between them, to be carried into effect on the death of Charles II of Spain. With this trump card up his sleeve Louis accepted the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (May 1668), by which he surrendered Franche-Comté but retained some of his Flemish conquests, including Lille.

 

===The Dutch War, 1672-1678===

===The Dutch War, 1672-1678===

Meanwhile, England and France were drawn together by resentment at the commercial success of the Dutch, who were exploiting the produce of the French and English colonies. Colbert's project for a commercial treaty between the two monarchies, directed against the trade of the Dutch republic, fell through (1669). At this point Louis arranged the secret [[Treaty of Dover]] (May 1670) with [[Charles II]] of England by which the two kings undertook to wage a war of extermination against the Dutch. Louis' motives were personal rather than national: the humiliation of the Dutch, and a close alliance with Charles (based on French subsidies); the latter would promote the cause of Roman Catholicism in England.<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'' (1968) pp 213-66</ref>  

Meanwhile, England and France were drawn together by resentment at the commercial success of the Dutch, who were exploiting the produce of the French and English colonies. Colbert's project for a commercial treaty between the two monarchies, directed against the trade of the Dutch republic, fell through (1669). At this point Louis arranged the secret Treaty of Dover (May 1670) with [[Charles II]] of England by which the two kings undertook to wage a war of extermination against the Dutch. Louis' motives were personal rather than national: the humiliation of the Dutch, and a close alliance with Charles (based on French subsidies); the latter would promote the cause of Roman Catholicism in England.<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'' (1968) pp 213-66</ref>  

In June 1672, without even a declaration of war, Louis' armies of about 120,000 men invaded Dutch territory. A revolution in the United Provinces removed the De Witt brothers by massacre and placed [[William of Orange]] in supreme command. By dogged determination William wore down the French offensive and, on the withdrawal of the French in 1674, Louis was obliged to conduct a long series of indecisive campaigns which lasted until the signing of a general peace at Nijmegen in 1678. In these campaigns Louis did win back Franche-Comté, which he was allowed to retain at the peace settlement; he had, however, stirred European anger by a systematic devastation of the Rhenish Palatinate, where the population was mainly Protestant. What was to have been a short, quick war turned out to be a weary succession of campaigns and sieges, a comparative failure which increased the irritation of the King.

In June 1672, without even a declaration of war, Louis' armies of about 120,000 men invaded Dutch territory. A revolution in the United Provinces removed the De Witt brothers by massacre and placed [[William of Orange]] in supreme command. By dogged determination William wore down the French offensive and, on the withdrawal of the French in 1674, Louis was obliged to conduct a long series of indecisive campaigns which lasted until the signing of a general peace at Nijmegen in 1678. In these campaigns Louis did win back Franche-Comté, which he was allowed to retain at the peace settlement; he had, however, stirred European anger by a systematic devastation of the Rhenish Palatinate, where the population was mainly Protestant. What was to have been a short, quick war turned out to be a weary succession of campaigns and sieges, a comparative failure which increased the irritation of the King.

===War of the League of Augsburg, 1688-1697===

===War of the League of Augsburg, 1688-1697===

In the years immediately following, Louis' foreign relations appeared quiescent, but he actually maintained a continual state of tension in Europe; on pretexts as flimsy as his "devolution" claims he took over a number of cities, including Colmar and Strasbourg. These were confirmed to him in August 1684 by the Emperor and the Spanish government in the [[Treaty of Ratisbon]], which was an attempt at appeasement. This marked the high point of Louis' career, since he could now seize territories, not by the prowess of his armies, but because of the fears of his enemies. Ratisbon was soon followed by disquieting events—the revocation of the [[Edict of Nantes]] (1685), which antagonized Protestant rulers, and a poorly-founded claim to territory in the Rhenish Palatinate.

In the years immediately following, Louis' foreign relations appeared quiescent, but he actually maintained a continual state of tension in Europe; on pretexts as flimsy as his "devolution" claims he took over a number of cities, including Colmar and Strasbourg. These were confirmed to him in August 1684 by the Emperor and the Spanish government in the Treaty of Ratisbon], which was an attempt at appeasement. This marked the high point of Louis' career, since he could now seize territories, not by the prowess of his armies, but because of the fears of his enemies. Ratisbon was soon followed by disquieting events—the revocation of the [[Edict of Nantes]] (1685), which antagonized Protestant rulers, and a poorly-founded claim to territory in the Rhenish Palatinate.

Europe's alarm was expressed in the formation of the [[League of Augsburg]] in July 1686, whereby the Emperor allied himself with several Protestant and Catholic princes for their common defense. [[William of Orange]], though not a signatory to this League, was the guiding spirit behind it. With the flight of [[James II]] and the success of the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688, he became William III of England and took the lead against Louis with the resources of England behind him and with the active help of the Emperor, Spain, and Brandenburg, and the tacit support of the pope.

Europe's alarm was expressed in the formation of the League of Augsburg in July 1686, whereby the Emperor allied himself with several Protestant and Catholic princes for their common defense. [[William of Orange]], though not a signatory to this League, was the guiding spirit behind it. With the flight of [[James II]] and the success of the [[Glorious Revolution]] of 1688, he became William III of England and took the lead against Louis with the resources of England behind him and with the active help of the Emperor, Spain, and Brandenburg, and the tacit support of the pope.

The war which followed, commonly called the War of the League of Augsburg, was fought on land and at sea, in Flanders, in northern Italy, and on the Rhine, and was inaugurated by the second devastation of the Palatinate (1689). The only decisive battles were the [[Battle of the Boyne]] (July 1690), by which William expelled James II from Ireland, and the naval battle of La Hogue (May 1692), in which the British destroyed a large part of the French fleet. The war ended in a draw; by the [[Treaty of Ryswick]] (September 1697) Louis restored his conquests, recognized the sovereignty of William, and undertook not to give further assistance to the dethroned Stuart house of England.

The war which followed, commonly called the War of the League of Augsburg, was fought on land and at sea, in Flanders, in northern Italy, and on the Rhine, and was inaugurated by the second devastation of the Palatinate (1689). The only decisive battles were the Battle of the Boyne (July 1690), by which William expelled James II from Ireland, and the naval battle of La Hogue (May 1692), in which the British destroyed a large part of the French fleet. The war ended in a draw; by the [[Treaty of Ryswick]] (September 1697) Louis restored his conquests, recognized the sovereignty of William, and undertook not to give further assistance to the dethroned Stuart house of England.

===War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714===

===War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714===

By far the most serious war was the long, drawn-out War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714 that nearly bankrupted France while producing few major benefits.  After the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick five years of uneasy peace followed; Louis and William failed in their attempts to settle the Spanish succession question by treaties of partition.<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'' (1968) p 499-578</ref>  Charles II of Spain died in November 1700 and by his will he left the entire succession to Philip, Duc d'Anjou, a younger grandson of Louis, a solution which was acceptable to war-weary Europe. But, like a true dictator, Louis could never leave well enough alone. The will stipulated that the crowns of France and Spain should never be united. Louis flouted this by a decree that the contingent rights of the Duc d'Anjou to the French throne were inviolable; at the same time he filled the garrisons of the Flemish frontier towns with French troops. On the death of the former King of England James II in September 1701, Louis publicly recognized his son James, the "[[Old Pretender]]," as his successor, guaranteeing trouble with England. Meanwhile, in summer 1701, William organized the Grand Alliance of The Hague, consisting mainly of Britain, the Emperor, and the Dutch, to resist the renewed French threats.

By far the most serious war was the long, drawn-out War of the Spanish Succession, 1701-1714 that nearly bankrupted France while producing few major benefits.  After the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick five years of uneasy peace followed; Louis and William failed in their attempts to settle the Spanish succession question by treaties of partition.<ref>John Wolf, ''Louis XIV'' (1968) p 499-578</ref>  Charles II of Spain died in November 1700 and by his will he left the entire succession to Philip, Duc d'Anjou, a younger grandson of Louis, a solution which was acceptable to war-weary Europe. But, like a true dictator, Louis could never leave well enough alone. The will stipulated that the crowns of France and Spain should never be united. Louis flouted this by a decree that the contingent rights of the Duc d'Anjou to the French throne were inviolable; at the same time he filled the garrisons of the Flemish frontier towns with French troops. On the death of the former King of England James II in September 1701, Louis publicly recognized his son James, the "Old Pretender", as his successor, guaranteeing trouble with England. Meanwhile, in summer of 1701, William organized the Grand Alliance of The Hague, consisting mainly of Britain, the Emperor, and the Dutch, to resist the renewed French threats.

In May 1702 Britain's [[Queen Anne]], William's successor, declared war on Louis. The "War of the Spanish Succession" differed markedly from Louis' earlier wars in that the forces opposing France were now under the command of a great leader, John Churchill, [[Duke of Marlborough]]; instead of the old spectacular sieges and aimless marches, there ensued a war of swift movement, directed by an overall strategy. The allies won a number of great battles, including [[Blenheim, battle of|Blenheim (1704)]], Ramillies (1706), Oudenarde (1708), and Malplaquet (1709). By contrast, in Spain, the French victory at Almanza (1707) served to place the Duc d'Anjou on the Spanish throne, where he ruled thereafter as [[Philip V]]. A change of ministry in England in 1710 displaced the party in favor of continuing the war, and the Tories, pledged to peace, signed the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] in April 1713.

In May 1702 Britain's [[Queen Anne]], William's successor, declared war on Louis. The "War of the Spanish Succession" differed markedly from Louis' earlier wars in that the forces opposing France were now under the command of a great leader, John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough; instead of the old spectacular sieges and aimless marches, there ensued a war of swift movement, directed by an overall strategy. The allies won a number of great battles, including the Battle of Blenheim (1704), Ramillies (1706), Oudenarde (1708), and Malplaquet (1709). By contrast, in Spain, the French victory at Almanza (1707) served to place the Duc d'Anjou on the Spanish throne, where he ruled thereafter as [[Philip V]]. A change of ministry in England in 1710 displaced the party in favor of continuing the war, and the Tories, pledged to peace, signed the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] in April 1713.

By this treaty Louis recognized the Hanoverian succession in England, which was to follow upon Anne's death, and surrendered parts of the French possessions in [[Canada]]. The Dutch were protected by a line of barrier forts, and the southern Netherlands was transferred from the rule of Spain to that of the Austrian Emperor. The French northeastern frontier was left little changed, but Lille and Strasbourg remained French. Philip surrendered all contingent claims to the French throne and recognized the British conquest of [[Gibraltar]]. In view of his many defeats Louis got off very lightly, mainly because of disagreement among the allies. His fortitude during the disasters of this war had served to rally the patriotism of his subjects, but France was left impoverished and disillusioned.

By this treaty Louis recognized the Hanoverian succession in England, which was to follow upon Anne's death, and surrendered parts of the French possessions in [[Canada]]. The Dutch were protected by a line of barrier forts, and the southern Netherlands was transferred from the rule of Spain to that of the Austrian Emperor. The French northeastern frontier was left little changed, but Lille and Strasbourg remained French. Philip surrendered all contingent claims to the French throne and recognized the British conquest of [[Gibraltar]]. In view of his many defeats Louis got off very lightly, mainly because of disagreement among the allies. His fortitude during the disasters of this war had served to rally the patriotism of his subjects, but France was left impoverished and disillusioned.

===Religion===

===Religion===

Louis was willing enough to partner with Protestant states, but he opposed the Protestant Huguenots inside France. He tried to forcibly re-Catholicize the Huguenots by continued vexations, the employment of dragoons, and finally by the revocation (Oct. 18, 1685) of the liberal [[Edict of Nantes]] of 1598, which gave Huguenots legal rights. The revocation forbade Protestant services, the children were to be educated as Catholics, and emigration was prohibited. It proved disastrous to the Huguenots and costly for France. It precipitated civil bloodshed, ruined commerce, and resulted in the illegal flight from the country of several hundred thousand Protestants, many of whom became intellectuals, physicians and business leaders in Britain and the American colonies, as well as Holland, Prussia and South Africa.  Those Huguenots who stayed became Catholics.

Louis was willing enough to partner with Protestant states, but he opposed the Protestant Huguenots inside France. He tried to forcibly re-Catholicize the Huguenots by continued vexations, the employment of dragoons, and finally by the revocation (Oct. 18, 1685) of the liberal [[Edict of Nantes]] of 1598, which gave Huguenots legal rights. The revocation forbade Protestant services, the children were to be educated as Catholics, and emigration was prohibited. It proved disastrous to the Huguenots and costly for France. It precipitated civil bloodshed, ruined commerce, and resulted in the illegal flight from the country of several hundred thousand Protestants, many of whom became intellectuals, physicians and business leaders in Britain and the American colonies, as well as Holland, Prussia and South Africa.  Those Huguenots who stayed became Catholics.

The Jansenists—ultra strict Catholics—also fell afoul of Louis. He used the [[Jesuit]] order to minimize their influence.  He was a "Gallican" in Church affairs. That is, he favored a strong [[Papacy, history|Papacy]] as long as it was weak inside France and he controlled the bishops and abbeys.

The Jansenists—ultra strict Catholics—also fell afoul of Louis. He used the [[Jesuit]] order to minimize their influence.  He was a "Gallican" in Church affairs. That is, he favored a strong [[Papacy, history|Papacy]] as long as it was weak inside France and he controlled the bishops and abbeys.

==Image and memory==

==Image and memory==

===The official image===

===The official image===

Few rulers in world history commemorated themselves so grandly as Louis XIV.<ref>Peter Burke, "The fabrication of Louis XIV." ''History Today,'' (Feb 1992), Vol. 42, Issue 2 in [[EBSCO]]</ref> Pamphelteers used a standard vocabulary, portraying him (in English alphabetical order) as august, conquering, enlightened, generous, god-given, heroic, illustrious, immortal, invincible, just, magnanimous, pious, triumphant and wise. In a word, he was "great", an adjective officially adopted in 1671. Indeed, LOUIS LE GRAND was generally written in capital letters even in a text in lower case.

Few rulers in world history commemorated themselves so grandly as Louis XIV.<ref>Peter Burke, "The fabrication of Louis XIV." ''History Today,'' (Feb 1992), Vol. 42, Issue 2 in [[EBSCO]]</ref> Pamphelteers used a standard vocabulary, portraying him (in English alphabetical order) as august, conquering, enlightened, generous, God-given, heroic, illustrious, immortal, invincible, just, magnanimous, [[Piety|pious]], triumphant and wise. In a word, he was "great", an adjective officially adopted in 1671. Indeed, LOUIS LE GRAND was generally written in capital letters even in a text in lower case.

Louis XIV used court rituals as a way to mirror and maintain the control he exerted in other areas of his rule, both domestic and international. Theater, sculpture, court ceremonies, dance, and music were all carefully planned and staged to reinforce his power and to represent his view of proper order down to the smallest detail. The master of ceremonies, court composer, and court dance master were key players in this process.

Louis XIV used court rituals as a way to mirror and maintain the control he exerted in other areas of his rule, both domestic and international. Theater, sculpture, court ceremonies, dance, and music were all carefully planned and staged to reinforce his power and to represent his view of proper order down to the smallest detail. The master of ceremonies, court composer, and court dance master were key players in this process.

From the start of Louis' reign, Jean Baptiste Colbert set up a centralized and institutionalized system for creating and perpetuating the royal image. The two main approaches were the ancient paradigm and the rivalry with ruling powers, notably Spain. The traditional images of the king in majesty and the king at war persisted in official paintings and busts and in the almanacs that concertedly spread royal propaganda among the people at large. The traditional representation of the king as a Roman emperor can be seen in Le Brun's plans for major monuments and in sculptures. Apollonian themes created a mythological environment, with painted decor and sculptures, rather than true likenesses. Portrayal of the reign in metal (medal stamping) was only in its infancy. The major works of the decade were tapestries, and these were either allegorical, depicting the elements and the seasons, or realist, portraying royal residences and, in particular, the history of the king. This was the most significant means by which the monarchy was mythicized before the Hall of Mirrors was created at Versailles.<ref>Gérard Sabatier, "La Gloire du Roi: Iconographie de Louis XIV de 1661 a 1672," ''Histoire, Economie et Société'' 2000 19(4): 527-560.</ref>

From the start of Louis' reign, Jean Baptiste Colbert set up a centralized and institutionalized system for creating and perpetuating the royal image. The two main approaches were the ancient paradigm and the rivalry with ruling powers, notably Spain. The traditional images of the king in majesty and the king at war persisted in official paintings and busts and in the almanacs that concertedly spread royal propaganda among the people at large. The traditional representation of the king as a Roman emperor can be seen in Le Brun's plans for major monuments and in sculptures. Apollonian themes created a mythological environment, with painted decor and sculptures, rather than true likenesses. Portrayal of the reign in metal (medal stamping) was only in its infancy. The major works of the decade were tapestries, and these were either allegorical, depicting the elements and the seasons, or realist, portraying royal residences and, in particular, the history of the king. This was the most significant means by which the monarchy was mythicized before the Hall of Mirrors was created at Versailles.<ref>Gérard Sabatier, "La Gloire du Roi: Iconographie de Louis XIV de 1661 a 1672," ''Histoire, Economie et Société'' 2000 19(4): 527-560.</ref>

===Glorified portraits===

===Glorified portraits===

Louis commissioned over 300 formal [[portraits]] of himself; he also commissioned "war artists" to follow him on campaign and record his military triumphs on the spot. About 700 different engravings of Louis have survived.  In the 1680s, a series of twenty statues of the king were commissioned for public squares in Paris and in provincial towns. Freestanding permanent triumphal arches were also erected in Paris and the provinces for the first time since the decline of the Roman Empire. Sixteenth century rulers often issued twenty or thirty medals to commemorate the major events of their reigns, but Louis struck more than 300, celebrating the story of the king in a bronze that was enshrined in thousands of houses.  

Louis commissioned over 300 formal [[portraits]] of himself; he also commissioned "war artists" to follow him on campaign and record his military triumphs on the spot. About 700 different engravings of Louis have survived.  In the 1680s, a series of twenty statues of the king were commissioned for public squares in Paris and in provincial towns. Freestanding permanent triumphal arches were also erected in Paris and the provinces for the first time since the decline of the Roman Empire. Sixteenth century rulers often issued twenty or thirty medals to commemorate the major events of their reigns, but Louis struck more than 300, celebrating the story of the king in a bronze that was enshrined in thousands of houses.  

[[Image:Versailles.jpg|thumb|455px|Palace and gardens at Versailles]]

[[Image:Versailles.jpg|thumb|455px|Palace and gardens at Versailles]]

His great château at [[Versailles]] integrated gardens, interior design, and the iconography of the paintings to express a royal plan to visually represent the power of the absolute monarchy personified by Louis.  The Galerie des Glaces (Hall of Mirrors) at Versailles became the most prestigious section of the royal residence. Under the king's close supervision, [[Charles Le Brun]] (1619–90) finalized a political thematic decoration program for the hall in 1679 that retraces the important accomplishments of Louis's reign, ranging from his ascension to the throne to the War of Devolution (1667–68). Decorative arches place emphasis on the significant events of the war in Holland. The decorations, intended to demonstrate the king's grandeur, omit the defeats that his French army suffered and cover up the reality of the resulting Pyrrhic victory and the consequent responses of France's adversaries, which left Louis XIV's kingdom isolated.

His great château at [[Versailles]] integrated gardens, interior design, and the iconography of the paintings to express a royal plan to visually represent the power of the absolute monarchy personified by Louis.  The Galerie des Glaces (Hall of Mirrors) at Versailles became the most prestigious section of the royal residence. Under the king's close supervision, Charles Le Brun (1619–90) finalized a political thematic decoration program for the hall in 1679 that retraces the important accomplishments of Louis's reign, ranging from his ascension to the throne to the War of Devolution (1667–68). Decorative arches place emphasis on the significant events of the war in Holland. The decorations, intended to demonstrate the king's grandeur, omit the defeats that his French army suffered and cover up the reality of the resulting Pyrrhic victory and the consequent responses of France's adversaries, which left Louis XIV's kingdom isolated.

===Ballet===

===Ballet===

Alongside official images and the discourse emanating from the court, Frenchmen followed a nonofficial discourse comprised mainly of clandestine publications, popular songs, and rumors, which provided an alternative interpretation of the king and his government. They focused the miseries caused by bad government, but also carried the hope for a better future in the event that the king escaped the influence of his ministers and mistresses and took the government into his own hands. On the other hand, petitions addressed either directly to the king or to his ministers exploited the traditional imagery and language of the monarchy and king, while the numerous denouncers of fake conspiracies against the king sought to manipulate the weaknesses of the monarchical system for their own ends. These varying images of the king abounded in self-contradictions that reflected the people's amalgamation of their everyday experiences with the ideal of the monarchy.<ref>Jens Ivo Engels, "Denigrer, Esperer, Assumer La Realite. Le Roi de France perçu par ses Sujets, 1680-1750" ["Disparaging, Hoping, Taking on Reality: the French King as Perceived by His Subjects, 1680-1750"]. ''Revue D'histoire Moderne et Contemporaine'' 2003 50(3): 96-126.</ref>

Alongside official images and the discourse emanating from the court, Frenchmen followed a nonofficial discourse comprised mainly of clandestine publications, popular songs, and rumors, which provided an alternative interpretation of the king and his government. They focused the miseries caused by bad government, but also carried the hope for a better future in the event that the king escaped the influence of his ministers and mistresses and took the government into his own hands. On the other hand, petitions addressed either directly to the king or to his ministers exploited the traditional imagery and language of the monarchy and king, while the numerous denouncers of fake conspiracies against the king sought to manipulate the weaknesses of the monarchical system for their own ends. These varying images of the king abounded in self-contradictions that reflected the people's amalgamation of their everyday experiences with the ideal of the monarchy.<ref>Jens Ivo Engels, "Denigrer, Esperer, Assumer La Realite. Le Roi de France perçu par ses Sujets, 1680-1750" ["Disparaging, Hoping, Taking on Reality: the French King as Perceived by His Subjects, 1680-1750"]. ''Revue D'histoire Moderne et Contemporaine'' 2003 50(3): 96-126.</ref>

==Bibliography==

==Bibliography==

* Ashley, Maurice P. ''Louis XIV And The Greatness Of France'' (1965) [http://www.amazon.com/Louis-Greatness-France-Maurice-Ashley/dp/0029010802/ref=sr_1_22?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467644&sr=1-22 excerpt and text search]  

* Ashley, Maurice P. ''Louis XIV And The Greatness Of France'' (1965) [https://www.amazon.com/Louis-Greatness-France-Maurice-Ashley/dp/0029010802/ref=sr_1_22?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467644&sr=1-22 excerpt and text search]  

* Beik, William. ''Louis XIV and Absolutism: A Brief Study with Documents'' (2000)  [http://www.amazon.com/Louis-XIV-Absolutism-Documents-Bedford/dp/031213309X/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]

* Beik, William. ''Louis XIV and Absolutism: A Brief Study with Documents'' (2000)  [https://www.amazon.com/Louis-XIV-Absolutism-Documents-Bedford/dp/031213309X/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]

* Beik, William. "The Absolutism of Louis XIX as Social Collaboration." ''Past & Present'' 2005 (188): 195-224. Issn: 0031-2746 Fulltext online at [[OUP]]

* Beik, William. "The Absolutism of Louis XIX as Social Collaboration." ''Past & Present'' 2005 (188): 195–224. Issn: 0031-2746 Fulltext online at [[OUP]]

* Burke, Peter. ''The Fabrication of Louis XIV'' (1994) [http://www.amazon.com/Fabrication-Louis-XIV-Peter-Burke/dp/0300059434/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]

* Burke, Peter. ''The Fabrication of Louis XIV'' (1994) [https://www.amazon.com/Fabrication-Louis-XIV-Peter-Burke/dp/0300059434/ref=sr_1_6?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-6 excerpt and text search]

* ''Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 5 The Age Of Louis XIV'' (1908), old, solid articles by scholars;  [http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh.html#cmh1 complete text online]

* ''Cambridge Modern History: Vol. 5 The Age Of Louis XIV'' (1908), old, solid articles by scholars;  [http://www.uni-mannheim.de/mateo/camenaref/cmh/cmh.html#cmh1 complete text online]

* Dunlop, Ian. ''Louis XIV'' (2000), 512pp  [http://www.amazon.com/Louis-XIV-Ian-Dunlop/dp/0312261969/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]

* Dunlop, Ian. ''Louis XIV'' (2000), 512pp  [https://www.amazon.com/Louis-XIV-Ian-Dunlop/dp/0312261969/ref=sr_1_7?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-7 excerpt and text search]

* Goubert, Pierre. ''Louis XIV and Twenty Million Frenchmen'' (1972), social history from [[Annales School]]  

* Goubert, Pierre. ''Louis XIV and Twenty Million Frenchmen'' (1972), social history from [[Annales School]]  

* Lewis, W. H. ''The Splendid Century: Life in the France of Louis XIV'' (1997) [http://www.amazon.com/Splendid-Century-Life-France-Louis/dp/0881339210/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]; also [http://www.questia.com/read/6019084 online complete edition]

* Lewis, W. H. ''The Splendid Century: Life in the France of Louis XIV'' (1997) [https://www.amazon.com/Splendid-Century-Life-France-Louis/dp/0881339210/ref=pd_bbs_sr_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]; also [http://www.questia.com/read/6019084 online complete edition]

* Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. ''The Ancien Regime: A History of France 1610 - 1774'' (1999), survey by leader of the [[Annales School]] [http://www.amazon.com/Ancien-Regime-History-France-1610/dp/0631211969/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202469887&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]

* Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. ''The Ancien Regime: A History of France 1610 - 1774'' (1999), survey by leader of the [[Annales School]] [https://www.amazon.com/Ancien-Regime-History-France-1610/dp/0631211969/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202469887&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]

* Lynn, John A. ''The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667-1714'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Wars-Louis-1667-1714-Modern-Perspective/dp/0582056292/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]

* Lynn, John A. ''The Wars of Louis XIV, 1667-1714'' (1999) [https://www.amazon.com/Wars-Louis-1667-1714-Modern-Perspective/dp/0582056292/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-5 excerpt and text search]

* Mitford, Nancy. ''The Sun King''(1995), popular  [http://www.amazon.com/Sun-King-Nancy-Mitford/dp/0140239677/ref=pd_bbs_sr_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]

* Mitford, Nancy. ''The Sun King''(1995), popular  [https://www.amazon.com/Sun-King-Nancy-Mitford/dp/0140239677/ref=pd_bbs_sr_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1202467216&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]

* Rowlands, Guy. ''The Dynastic State and the Army under Louis XIV: Royal Service and Private Interest, 1661-1701'' (2002) [http://www.questia.com/read/105134626 online edition]

* Rowlands, Guy. ''The Dynastic State and the Army under Louis XIV: Royal Service and Private Interest, 1661-1701'' (2002) [http://www.questia.com/read/105134626 online edition]

* Shennan, J. H. ''Louis XIV'' (1993) [http://www.questia.com/read/108828773 online edition]

* Shennan, J. H. ''Louis XIV'' (1993) [http://www.questia.com/read/108828773 online edition]

* Wilkinson, Rich. ''Louis XIV'' (2007)  

* Wilkinson, Rich. ''Louis XIV'' (2007)  

* Wolf, John B. ''Louis XIV'' (1968), the standard scholarly biography [http://www.questia.com/read/103250721 online edition]

* Wolf, John B. ''Louis XIV'' (1968), the standard scholarly biography [http://www.questia.com/read/103250721 online edition]

====Notes====

== External ==

 

 

 

 

== Notes ==

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<references/>

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