Changes

===Civil War with Communists 1921-49===

===Civil War with Communists 1921-49===

The Chinese Communist Party was founded in Shanghai, China's largest city, in 1921. It was allied with the KMT but in classical Marxist style its goal was initially to foment revolution among urban workers and to seize the ultimate political power of entire China. It was controlled by [[Stalin]] in Moscow through the Comintern. In 1927, however, a bloody anti-communist coup by the Nationalist, destroyed the CCP in the cities. Forced into the countryside, the CCP broke with Russian guidance and developed a new strategy based on agrarian revolution, mobilizing poor peasants by promising to confiscate and redistribute the lands held by landlords. [[Mao Zedong]] took the lead.<ref>Spence, ''Search for Modern China'' (1990) ch 14</ref>  

The [[Chinese Communist Party]] was founded in Shanghai, China's largest city, in 1921. It was allied with the KMT but in classical Marxist style its goal was initially to foment revolution among urban workers and to seize the ultimate political power of entire China. It was controlled by [[Stalin]] in Moscow through the Comintern. In 1927, however, a bloody anti-communist coup by the Nationalist, destroyed the CCP in the cities. Forced into the countryside, the CCP broke with Russian guidance and developed a new strategy based on agrarian revolution, mobilizing poor peasants by promising to confiscate and redistribute the lands held by landlords. [[Mao Zedong]] took the lead.<ref>Spence, ''Search for Modern China'' (1990) ch 14</ref>  

====The Long March: 1934-36 ====

====The Long March: 1934-36====

In 1934-35, the CCP fled the KMT with over 100,000 men and women.They divided into several armies, marched 6,000 miles inland through a brutal terrain of frigid mountain passes, freezing rivers and marshes in search of a sanctuary to continue their revolution. Only 7000 survived the march.<ref>John M. Glionna, "China's reality check on Long March," [https://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-longmarch16jan16,0,3463382.story?coll=la-home-center ''Los Angeles Times, Jan. 16, 2008]</ref>

The Long March was a 6,000 mile retreat of the Chinese Communist Army back to the northwest to Outer [[Mongolia]] and the Soviet Union after it being routed by the [[Kuomintang]] in October 1933 to January 1934. In the fifth operation by the KMT, which aimed to encircle and annihilate the CCP, the CCP lost its rural strongholds one after another. With its base areas continually shrinking, the main CCP Army had to flee. They were divided into several armies.

The Long March became the heroic memory of the CCP, and virtually all the Communist leaders of the next 70 years were marchers or their children.<ref>Sun Shuyun, ''The Long March: The True History of Communist China's Founding Myth'' (2007)</ref>

 

The Long March traveled through Shanxi and Suiyuan through a brutal terrain of frigid mountain passes, freezing rivers, and marshes where no Japanese troops were deployed, in search of a sanctuary to continue their revolution. Along the way, the Army of the CCP claimed to be fighting the Japanese.  A year later, when the CCP finally arrived at Shanbei (northern Shaanxi province), the main force of the Central Red Army had decreased from 80,000 to 6,000 people. 

 

Only 7000 survived the march.<ref>John M. Glionna, "China's reality check on Long March," [https://www.latimes.com/news/nationworld/world/la-fg-longmarch16jan16,0,3463382.story?coll=la-home-center ''Los Angeles Times, Jan. 16, 2008]</ref>

 

All the Communist leaders of the country after 1949 were on the Long March. Virtually all the Communist leaders of the next 70 years were marchers or their children.<ref>Sun Shuyun, ''The Long March: The True History of Communist China's Founding Myth'' (2007)</ref>   By the 1960s, the children of people on the March started to gain power.

===The Nanjing decade: 1927-1937===

===The Nanjing decade: 1927-1937===

Due to pressure from numerous accounts of the bio-warfare attacks, [[Chiang Kai-shek]] sent a delegation of army and foreign medical personnel in November 1941 to document evidence and treat the afflicted. A report on the Japanese use of plague-infested fleas on Changde was made widely available the following year, but was not addressed by the Allied Powers until [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] issued a public warning in 1943 condemning the attacks.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biohazard: Unit 731 and the American Cover-Up (Page 5)|url=https://www.umflint.edu/sites/default/files/groups/Research_and_Sponsored_Programs/MOM/b.altheide.pdf|website=[[University of Michigan–Flint]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Guillemin|first=Jeanne|date=2017|editor-last=Friedrich|editor-first=Bretislav|editor2-last=Hoffmann|editor2-first=Dieter|editor3-last=Renn|editor3-first=Jürgen|editor4-last=Schmaltz|editor4-first=Florian|editor5-last=Wolf|editor5-first=Martin|title=The 1925 Geneva Protocol: China's CBW Charges Against Japan at the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal|journal=One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences|language=en|publisher=Springer International Publishing|pages=273–286|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-51664-6_15|isbn=9783319516646|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Due to pressure from numerous accounts of the bio-warfare attacks, [[Chiang Kai-shek]] sent a delegation of army and foreign medical personnel in November 1941 to document evidence and treat the afflicted. A report on the Japanese use of plague-infested fleas on Changde was made widely available the following year, but was not addressed by the Allied Powers until [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] issued a public warning in 1943 condemning the attacks.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Biohazard: Unit 731 and the American Cover-Up (Page 5)|url=https://www.umflint.edu/sites/default/files/groups/Research_and_Sponsored_Programs/MOM/b.altheide.pdf|website=[[University of Michigan–Flint]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Guillemin|first=Jeanne|date=2017|editor-last=Friedrich|editor-first=Bretislav|editor2-last=Hoffmann|editor2-first=Dieter|editor3-last=Renn|editor3-first=Jürgen|editor4-last=Schmaltz|editor4-first=Florian|editor5-last=Wolf|editor5-first=Martin|title=The 1925 Geneva Protocol: China's CBW Charges Against Japan at the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal|journal=One Hundred Years of Chemical Warfare: Research, Deployment, Consequences|language=en|publisher=Springer International Publishing|pages=273–286|doi=10.1007/978-3-319-51664-6_15|isbn=9783319516646|doi-access=free}}</ref>

===Civil War resumes 1945-1949===

===Civil War resumes 1945-1949===

Maoist China fought the United States in the bloody [[Korean War]] (1950–53), and broke with the Soviet Union over the issue of who best represented the Marxist orthodoxy.   

Maoist China fought the United States in the bloody [[Korean War]] (1950–53), and broke with the Soviet Union over the issue of who best represented the Marxist orthodoxy.   

[[File:Anti-landlordism campaign.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Diorama depicting anti-landlordism, c. 1973.<ref>https://collections.lib.uwm.edu/digital/collection/agsphoto/id/44723</ref>]]

[[File:Anti-landlordism campaign.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Diorama depicting anti-landlordism, c. 1973.<ref>https://collections.lib.uwm.edu/digital/collection/agsphoto/id/44723</ref>]]

To seize real power, the CCP went on a nationwide anti-landlord campaign in rural areas and in cities, murdering landlords and their families, allegedly freeing the oppressed.  Land owners were tried in public kangaroo courts in village squares where they were openly shamed and mocked, accused of committing crimes against the people.  The land, however was transferred to state ownership and not to the people, and Stalinist collectivization imposed based upon the model implemented in the [[Ukraine]] in the 1930s (see [[Holodomor]]).

To seize real power, the CCP went on a nationwide anti-landlord campaign in rural areas and in cities, murdering landlords and their families, allegedly freeing the oppressed.  Land owners were tried in public kangaroo courts in village squares where they were openly shamed and mocked, accused of committing crimes against the people.  The land, however was transferred to state ownership and not to the people, and Stalinist collectivization imposed based upon the model implemented in the [[Ukraine]] in the 1930s (see [[Holodomor]]).

These anti-landlord campaigns and murder which [[the left]] deems "liberating the people", actually began in the communist occupied territory of Yan'an during World War II, where the communists were hiding out from the Kuomintang and the Japanese even before the party captured the Chinese state in 1949. Landlords were forced into a [[rectification]] process, making false confessions and apologies, after which they were murdered.<ref>The CCP murderers were he alleged "agrarian reformers" the ''New York Times'' and [[Secretary of State]] [[George Marshall]] spoke of.</ref>

These anti-landlord campaigns and murder which [[the left]] deems "liberating the people", actually began in the communist occupied territory of Yan'an during World War II, where the communists were hiding out from the Kuomintang and the Japanese even before the party captured the Chinese state in 1949. Landlords were forced into a [[rectification]] process, making false confessions and apologies, after which they were murdered.<ref>The CCP murderers were he alleged "agrarian reformers" the ''New York Times'' and [[Secretary of State]] [[George Marshall]] spoke of.</ref>

Prof. R.J. Rummel in ''China’s Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900,''<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=4FXn22NKptcC&pg=PA223&lpg=PA223&dq=30,000,000+landlords+and+rich+peasants+would+have+to+be+destroyed&source=bl&ots=qkNjN-QlB-&sig=yPIkj7nKfQqcWI4eVPXz_hW5I2E&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj_g6P2hdnSAhVIqFQKHdDCA-8Q6AEIITAB#v=onepage&q=30%2C000%2C000%20landlords%20and%20rich%20peasants%20would%20have%20to%20be%20destroyed&f=false China's Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900], By Rudolph J. Rummel</ref> but he posits that some 4.5 million landlords and relatively well-off peasants died in the land reform campaigns. Mao biographer Philip Short estimates that possibly 1 million landlords and their families were killed, but the death toll “may have been two, possibly three times higher.”   

Prof. R.J. Rummel in ''China’s Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900,''<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=4FXn22NKptcC&pg=PA223&lpg=PA223&dq=30,000,000+landlords+and+rich+peasants+would+have+to+be+destroyed&source=bl&ots=qkNjN-QlB-&sig=yPIkj7nKfQqcWI4eVPXz_hW5I2E&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwj_g6P2hdnSAhVIqFQKHdDCA-8Q6AEIITAB#v=onepage&q=30%2C000%2C000%20landlords%20and%20rich%20peasants%20would%20have%20to%20be%20destroyed&f=false China's Bloody Century: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900], By Rudolph J. Rummel</ref> posits that some 4.5 million landlords and relatively well-off peasants died in the land reform campaigns. Mao biographer Philip Short estimates that possibly 1 million landlords and their families were killed, but the death toll “may have been two, possibly three times higher.”   

According to China File, “landlords” was merely a convenient label pushed by Mao and the communist party:

According to China File, “landlords” was merely a convenient label pushed by Mao and the communist party:

In this type of mob savagery (think of what happened to Jews in Polish villages under Nazi rule), greed, envy, and personal resentments are useful human instincts for officials to exploit. Since class categories were often so arbitrary, and the instigators of violence usually came from the outside, people were in effect set upon one another, friends upon friends, children upon parents. This was the point of the exercise. Through organized violence, the Party made everyone complicit in the mayhem it stirred up. The aim was to tear apart the fabric of traditional Chinese life, leaving the Party as the only permitted focus of loyalty and authority.<ref>https://www.chinafile.com/library/nyrb-china-archive/china-reeducation-through-horror</ref>}}

In this type of mob savagery (think of what happened to Jews in Polish villages under Nazi rule), greed, envy, and personal resentments are useful human instincts for officials to exploit. Since class categories were often so arbitrary, and the instigators of violence usually came from the outside, people were in effect set upon one another, friends upon friends, children upon parents. This was the point of the exercise. Through organized violence, the Party made everyone complicit in the mayhem it stirred up. The aim was to tear apart the fabric of traditional Chinese life, leaving the Party as the only permitted focus of loyalty and authority.<ref>https://www.chinafile.com/library/nyrb-china-archive/china-reeducation-through-horror</ref>}}

 

According to historian Frank Dikötter, who chronicled Mao’s brutality: “Many of the victims were beaten to death and some shot, but in many cases they were first [[torture]]d in order to make them reveal their assets—real or imagined.”

 

 

 

 

 

Short said Mao-led peasants “lurched violently to the left.”

 

:{{See also|Yan'an rectification movement|Rectification}}

In northern Shaanxi Province, while sandwiched between the Japanese and the KMT, the CCP began the Yan’an Rectification Movement of mass cleansing, killing many people.  More than 10,000 were killed in the "rectification" process,<ref name="UJPRS">US Joint Publication research service. (1979). ''China Report: Political, Sociological and Military Affairs.'' Foreign Broadcast Information Service. No ISBN digitized text March 5, 2007</ref> as the Party made efforts to attack intellectuals and replace the culture of the [[May Fourth Movement]] with that of Communist culture.<ref>Twitchett, Denis and Fairbank, John K. ''The Cambridge History of China.'' {{ISBN|0-521-24336-X}}</ref><ref>Borthwick, Mark. (1998). ''Pacific Century: The Emergence of Modern Pacific Asia.'' Westview Press. {{ISBN|0-8133-3471-3}}</ref><ref name="Apter">Apter, David Ernest. (1994). Revolutionary Discourse in Mao's Republic. Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|0-674-76780-2}}</ref>  This type of repetitive massacre on such a massive scale did not prevent the CCP from eventually expanding its power to rule all of China. The CCP expanded this pattern of internal rivalry and killing from the small Soviet areas to the whole nation.  ''The Nine Commentaries on the Communist Party'' describes the Yan'an rectification movement as,

{{quotebox-float|"the largest, darkest, and most ferocious power game ever played out in the human world. In the name of “cleansing petty bourgeoisie toxins,” the Party washed away morality, independence of thought, freedom of action, tolerance, and dignity... Humiliation became a fact of life in Yan’an—it was either humiliate other comrades or humiliate oneself. People were pushed to the brink of insanity, having been forced to abandon their dignity, sense of honor or shame, and love for one another to save their own lives and their own jobs. They ceased to express their own opinions and recited Party leaders’ articles instead."}}

Mao developed the techniques of "thought reform" (literally "washing the brain" in Chinese). Mao's tactics often included isolating and attacking dissenting individuals in "study groups."  These techniques of pressure, ostracism, and reintegration were particularly powerful in China, where the culture puts great value on "saving face", protecting one's innermost thinking, and above all, identifying with a group.  Individuals put through thought reform later described it as excruciating. The resulting changes in views were not permanent, but the experience overall seriously affected the lives of those who went through it. The CCP has used these same types of techniques on millions of Chinese since 1949.

====Religious intolerance====

====Religious intolerance====

By eliminating the landlord class and the capitalist class and by persecuting large numbers of God-worshipping and law-abiding people, the CCP cleared the way for communism to become the all-encompassing religion of China.

By eliminating the landlord class and the capitalist class and by persecuting large numbers of God-worshipping and law-abiding people, the CCP cleared the way for communism to become the all-encompassing religion of China.

====Campaign against the rightist====

====Anti-rightist campaign====

 

====Great Leap Forward====

====Great Leap Forward====

{{quotebox|"Sol Adler, as well as two other friends of China, [[Jack Service]] and Frank Coe, confronted [[McCarthyism|the Joseph McCarthy persecution]]. So Sol left the US to stay in the [[UK]]. During this period, he visited China many times and in various ways introduced New China to the outside world. His book ''The Chinese Economy'' in 1957 won worldwide acclaim. In 1962, when the Chinese people were facing great difficulties at home and abroad, Sol Adler resolutely decided to come and settle in China.

{{quotebox|"Sol Adler, as well as two other friends of China, [[Jack Service]] and Frank Coe, confronted [[McCarthyism|the Joseph McCarthy persecution]]. So Sol left the US to stay in the [[UK]]. During this period, he visited China many times and in various ways introduced New China to the outside world. His book ''The Chinese Economy'' in 1957 won worldwide acclaim. In 1962, when the Chinese people were facing great difficulties at home and abroad, Sol Adler resolutely decided to come and settle in China.

He said, "I have come to settle in China for three reasons: First, I have all along had great trust and confidence in the Chinese people and their leaders; second, I have all along had unshakable faith in the cause of [[socialism]]; and third, I hope to stay in China for as long as possible and work for world peace and the friendship between the Chinese people and the peoples of the world. I want to devote my whole life to the cause of socialism.".<ref>[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2009-09/05/content_8658159.htm China Daily, Sol Adler, a soulful friend (China Daily) Updated: 2009-09-05 07:39 ]</ref>}}

He said, "I have come to settle in China for three reasons: First, I have all along had great trust and [[confidence]] in the Chinese people and their leaders; second, I have all along had unshakable faith in the cause of [[socialism]]; and third, I hope to stay in China for as long as possible and work for world peace and the friendship between the Chinese people and the peoples of the world. I want to devote my whole life to the cause of socialism.".<ref>[http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/cndy/2009-09/05/content_8658159.htm China Daily, Sol Adler, a soulful friend (China Daily) Updated: 2009-09-05 07:39 ]</ref>}}

Chinese [[historical revisionism]] now refers to The Great Leap Forward as The '''Three Years of Disasters'''.  Mao's successor Deng Xiaoping claimed the death toll to be only 16 million, one-third the actual number of victims.<ref>''Mao: The Real Story'', by Alexander P. Pantsov with Steven I. Levine, pg. 472.</ref>  The Great Leap Forward remains the greatest prime example of the failure of socialist [[economic planning]]

Chinese [[historical revisionism]] now refers to The Great Leap Forward as The '''Three Years of Disasters'''.  Mao's successor Deng Xiaoping claimed the death toll to be only 16 million, one-third the actual number of victims.<ref>''Mao: The Real Story'', by Alexander P. Pantsov with Steven I. Levine, pg. 472.</ref>  The Great Leap Forward remains the greatest prime example of the failure of socialist [[economic planning]]

Mao's regime imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people. The [[Cultural Revolution]] of 1966-76 was inspired by Mao and devastated the intellectual class. Tens of thousands of intellectuals and teachers were educators were insulted, tortured, driven to suicide or executed by their students. Mobilized as members of the Red Guards, a new youth organization, the students attacked the educators as "capitalist intellectuals." From 1967 to 1978, the state "send-down" (rustication) policy 17 million urban youth to live and work in rural areas, with a permanent negative impact on their intellectual development and careers.<ref>Xueguang Zhou and Liren Hou, "Children of the Cultural Revolution: the State and the Life Course in the People's Republic of China." ''American Sociological Review'' 1999 64(1): 12-36. Issn: 0003-1224 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2657275 in Jstor ]</ref>  

Mao's regime imposed strict controls over everyday life and cost the lives of tens of millions of people. The [[Cultural Revolution]] of 1966-76 was inspired by Mao and devastated the intellectual class. Tens of thousands of intellectuals and teachers were educators were insulted, tortured, driven to suicide or executed by their students. Mobilized as members of the Red Guards, a new youth organization, the students attacked the educators as "capitalist intellectuals." From 1967 to 1978, the state "send-down" (rustication) policy 17 million urban youth to live and work in rural areas, with a permanent negative impact on their intellectual development and careers.<ref>Xueguang Zhou and Liren Hou, "Children of the Cultural Revolution: the State and the Life Course in the People's Republic of China." ''American Sociological Review'' 1999 64(1): 12-36. Issn: 0003-1224 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/2657275 in Jstor ]</ref>  

The upheaval was not limited to the cities.  Maoist political ideology and teachings provided the catalyst for village conflicts that brought out traditional grievances and further escalated the conflicts. Some of the catalysts were student activists carrying out Mao's teachings, factional disputes, and the Four Clean-up campaigns that purged village officials and corruption. These conflicts spread to traditional grievances like lineage and hamlet hostilities and disputes over leadership and rights. Often, the conflicts caused by Party politics intersected traditional conflicts to the extent that the root causes of the conflicts were lost. This resulted in further escalation of the conflicts, which became more complex and widespread.   

The upheaval was not limited to the cities.  Maoist political ideology and teachings provided the catalyst for village conflicts that brought out traditional grievances and further escalated the conflicts. Some of the catalysts were student activists carrying out Mao's teachings, factional disputes, and the Four Clean-up campaigns that purged village officials and corruption. These conflicts spread to traditional grievances like lineage and hamlet hostilities and disputes over leadership and rights. Often, the conflicts caused by Party politics intersected traditional conflicts to the extent that the root causes of the conflicts were lost. This resulted in further [[escalation]] of the conflicts, which became more complex and widespread.   

[[File:Nixon in China.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Chou Enlai (left) President Nixon (center) Jiang Qing (right)]]

[[File:Nixon in China.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Chou Enlai (left) President Nixon (center) Jiang Qing (right)]]

In rural China an estimated 750,000 to 1.5 million people were killed, and about as many permanently injured; 36 million who suffered some form of political persecution. The vast majority of these casualties occurred from 1968 to 1971, after the end of the period of popular rebellion and factional conflict and the establishment of provisional organs of local state power.<ref>Jonathan Unger, "Cultural Revolution Conflict in the Villages." ''China Quarterly'' 1998 (153): 82-106. Issn: 0305-7410 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/655831 in Jstor] ; Andrew G. Walder, and Yang Su, "The Cultural Revolution in the Countryside: Scope, Timing and Human Impact." ''China Quarterly'' 2003 (173): 74-99. Issn: 0305-7410</ref>   

In rural China an estimated 750,000 to 1.5 million people were killed, and about as many permanently injured; 36 million who suffered some form of political persecution. The vast majority of these casualties occurred from 1968 to 1971, after the end of the period of popular rebellion and factional conflict and the establishment of provisional organs of local state power.<ref>Jonathan Unger, "Cultural Revolution Conflict in the Villages." ''China Quarterly'' 1998 (153): 82-106. Issn: 0305-7410 [http://www.jstor.org/pss/655831 in Jstor] ; Andrew G. Walder, and Yang Su, "The Cultural Revolution in the Countryside: Scope, Timing and Human Impact." ''China Quarterly'' 2003 (173): 74-99. Issn: 0305-7410</ref>   

{{main|One-child Policy}}

{{main|One-child Policy}}

With a population officially just over 1.3 billion and an estimated growth rate of about 0.6%, China is very concerned about its population growth and has attempted with mixed results to implement a strict birth limitation policy. Until 2013 the government permitted one child per family, with allowance for a second child under certain circumstances (such as twins), especially in rural areas, and with guidelines looser for ethnic minorities with small populations. Enforcement varies and relies largely on "social compensation fees" to discourage extra births. Official government policy opposed forced [[abortion]] or sterilization, but in some localities, there were instances of forced [[abortion]]. The government's goal was to stabilize the population in the first half of the 21st century, and current projections are that the population would peak at around 1.6 billion by 2050. Boys are highly prized, and because screening of fetuses is done to determine gender, selective abortion has resulted in 119 boys born for every 100 girls. By 2020, 24 million men of marrying age will find themselves without wives.

With a population officially just over 1.3 billion and an estimated growth rate of about 0.6%, China is very concerned about its population growth and has attempted with mixed results to implement a strict birth limitation policy. Until 2013 the government permitted one child per family, with allowance for a second child under certain circumstances (such as twins), especially in rural areas, and with guidelines looser for ethnic minorities with small populations. Enforcement varies and relies largely on "social compensation fees" to discourage extra births. Official government policy opposed forced [[abortion]] or sterilization, but in some localities, there were instances of forced [[abortion]]. The government's goal was to stabilize the population in the first half of the 21st century.

   

[[File:Deng Xiaoping visits the White House 1979.PNG|right|300px|thumb|Deng Xiaoping visits the White House, 1979.]]

2013 the government eased the One-child Policy strongly. Since then families in which at least one parent was an only child can have a second child now.<ref>http://cnsnews.com/news/article/china-ease-1-child-policy-abolish-labor-camps</ref>

Boys are highly prized, and because screening of fetuses was done to determine gender, selective abortion resulted in 119 boys born for every 100 girls.  

 

Fertility rates dropped below 2.0 by 1990.  The magnitude of female [[infanticide]] in China became astonishing in the decades between 1990 and 2010, when well over ten million female infants were killed.  The result was a skewed sex ratio in the generation born since 1980. By 2020, there were about 50 million more males than females.

====Economic reform and opening trade====

====Economic reform and opening trade====

Closer to home, China made efforts to reduce tensions in Asia, hosting the Six-Party Talks on North Korea's nuclear weapons program, cultivating a more cooperative relationship with members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), and participating in the ASEAN Regional Forum. The PRC took steps to improve relations with countries in South Asia, including India. Following Premier Wen's 2005 visit to India, the two sides moved to increase commercial and cultural ties, as well as to resolve longstanding border disputes. The November 2006 visit of President Hu was the first state visit by a Chinese head of state to India in 10 years.  

In recent years, Chinese leaders have been regular travelers to all parts of the globe, and China has sought a higher profile in the UN through its permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council and other multilateral organizations.

 

Coal makes up the bulk of China's energy consumption (70% in 2005), and China is the largest producer and consumer of coal in the world. As China's economy continues to grow, China's coal demand is projected to rise significantly. Although coal's share of China's overall energy consumption will decrease, coal consumption will continue to rise in absolute terms. China's continued and increasing reliance on coal as a power source has contributed significantly to putting China on the path to becoming the world's largest emitter of acid rain-causing sulfur dioxide and greenhouse gases, including carbon dioxide.  

 

The 11th Five-Year Program, announced in 2005, calls for greater energy conservation measures, including the development of renewable energy sources and increased attention to environmental protection. Moving away from coal towards cleaner energy sources including oil, natural gas, renewable energy, and nuclear power is an important component of China's development program. China has abundant hydroelectric resources; the Three Gorges Dam, for example, will have a total capacity of 18 gigawatts when fully on-line (projected for 2009). In addition, the share of electricity generated by nuclear power is projected to grow from 1% in 2000 to 5% in 2030. China's renewable energy law, which went into effect in 2006, calls for 10% of its energy to come from renewable energy sources by 2020.

 

Since 1993, China has been a net importer of oil, a large portion of which comes from the Middle East. Net imports are expected to rise to 3.5 million barrels per day by 2010. China is interested in diversifying the sources of its oil imports and has invested in oil fields around the world. Beijing also plans to increase China's natural gas production, which currently accounts for only 3% of China's total energy consumption. Analysts expect China's consumption of natural gas to more than double by 2010.  

China has likewise improved ties with Russia, with Presidents Putin and Hu exchanging visits to Beijing and Moscow in April 2006 and March 2007. A second round of Russia-China joint military exercises was scheduled for fall 2007. China played a prominent role in the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO), a regional grouping that includes Russia and the Central Asian nations of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Beijing has resolved many of its border and maritime disputes, notably including a November 1997 agreement with Russia that resolved almost all outstanding border issues and a 2000 agreement with Vietnam to resolve differences over their maritime border, though disagreements remain over islands in the [[South China Sea]]. Relations with Japan improved following Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe's October 2006 visit to Beijing, although longstanding and emotionally charged disputes over history and competing claims to portions of the East China Sea remain sources of tension.  

In May 2004, then-Secretary of Energy Spencer Abraham signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with China's National Development and Reform Commission (NDRC) that launched the U.S.-China Energy Policy Dialogue. The Dialogue has strengthened energy-related interactions between China and the United States, the world's two largest energy consumers. The U.S.-China Energy Policy Dialogue builds upon the two countries' existing cooperative ventures in high energy nuclear physics, fossil energy, energy efficiency, and renewable energy and energy information exchanges. The NDRC and the Department of Energy also exchange views and expertise on Peaceful Uses of Nuclear Technologies, and we convene an annual Oil and Gas Industry Forum with China.

While in many ways Sudan's primary diplomatic patron, China has played a role in support of U.N. Peacekeeping operations in Southern Sudan and pledged to contribute an engineering unit in support of UN operations in Darfur. China has stated publicly that it shares the international community's concern over Iran's nuclear program and has voted in support of UN sanctions resolutions on Iran. Set against this has been an effort on the part of China to maintain close ties to countries such as Iran, Sudan, Zimbabwe, and Venezuela, which are sources of oil and other resources and which welcome China's non-conditional assistance and investment.

 

 

 

While in many ways Sudan's primary [[diplomatic]] patron, China has played a role in support of [[U.N. Peacekeeping]] operations in [[Southern Sudan]] and pledged to contribute an engineering unit in support of [[UN]] operations in [[Darfur]]. China has stated publicly that it shares the [[international]] community's concern over Iran's [[nuclear]] program and has voted in support of UN sanctions resolutions on Iran. Set against this has been an effort on the part of China to maintain close ties to countries such as Iran, [[Sudan]], [[Zimbabwe]], and [[Venezuela]], which are sources of oil and other resources and which welcome China's non-conditional assistance and investment.

 

Bt 2026 the Shanghai Cooperation Organization has grown to encompass [[Russia]], China, [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Iran]], and [[Central Asia]]n states representing nearly half the world's [[population]]. Originally focused on regional [[security]], the SCO now positions itself as a platform for advancing [[multipolar]]ity and resisting [[Western alliance|Western]] [[hegemony]].

====Military developments====

====Military developments====

====Post-Deng China====

====Post-Deng China====

 

Deng's health deteriorated in the years prior to his death in 1997. [[Jiang Zemin]] gradually assumed control of the day-to-day functions of government. In November 2002, [[Hu Jintao]] was selected leader. In 1992, he had been designated by Deng Xiaoping as the "core" of the fourth generation leaders. On March 14, 2013 [[Xi Jinping]] was "elected" as new president.<ref>https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/9929619/Xi-Jinping-elected-Chinas-president-Telegraph-dispatch.html</ref>

Deng's health deteriorated in the years prior to his death in 1997. [[Jiang Zemin]] gradually assumed control of the day-to-day functions of government. In November 2002, [[Hu Jintao]] was selected leader. In 1992, he had been designated by Deng Xiaoping as the "core" of the fourth generation leaders. On March 14, 2013 [[Xi Jinping]] was "elected" as new president.<ref>https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/china/9929619/Xi-Jinping-elected-Chinas-president-Telegraph-dispatch.html</ref>

China's "economic miracle" since it was granted [[Most Favored Nation]] (MFN) status by the U.S. Congress in 2002, and access to the U.S. consumer market, led to unprecedented economic growth and better living conditions for millions of Chinese. It also strengthened the grip of the anti-democratic [[Chinese Communist Party]] over people's everyday lives, and the loss of manufacturing jobs for consumer products in the United States.

China's "economic miracle" since it was granted [[Most Favored Nation]] (MFN) status by the U.S. Congress in 2002, and access to the U.S. consumer market, led to unprecedented economic growth and better living conditions for millions of Chinese. It also strengthened the grip of the anti-democratic [[Chinese Communist Party]] over people's everyday lives, and the loss of manufacturing jobs for consumer products in the United States.

 

China's investment climate changed significantly. In the early 1980s, China restricted foreign investments to export-oriented operations and required foreign investors to form joint-venture partnerships with Chinese firms. Foreign direct investment (FDI) grew quickly during the 1980s, but stalled in late 1989 in the aftermath of Tiananmen. In response, the government introduced legislation and regulations designed to encourage foreigners to invest in high-priority sectors and regions. Since the early 1990s, China has allowed foreign investors to manufacture and sell a wide range of goods on the domestic market, and authorized the establishment of wholly foreign-owned enterprises, now the preferred form of FDI. However, the Chinese Government's emphasis on guiding FDI into manufacturing has led to market saturation in some industries, while leaving China's services sectors underdeveloped. China is now one of the leading recipients of FDI in the world, receiving almost $80 billion in 2005 according to World Bank statistics.  

China's investment climate changed significantly. In the early 1980s, China restricted foreign investments to export-oriented operations and required foreign investors to form joint-venture partnerships with Chinese firms. Foreign direct investment (FDI) grew quickly during the 1980s, but stalled in late 1989 in the aftermath of Tiananmen. In response, the government introduced legislation and regulations designed to encourage foreigners to invest in high-priority sectors and regions. Since the early 1990s, China has allowed foreign investors to manufacture and sell a wide range of goods on the domestic market, and authorized the establishment of wholly foreign-owned enterprises, now the preferred form of FDI. However, the Chinese Government's emphasis on guiding FDI into manufacturing has led to market saturation in some industries, while leaving China's services sectors underdeveloped. China is now one of the leading recipients of FDI in the world, receiving almost $80 billion in 2005 according to World Bank statistics.  

The United States is one of China's primary suppliers of power generating equipment, aircraft and parts, computers and industrial machinery, raw materials, and chemical and agricultural products. However, U.S. exporters continue to have concerns about fair market access due to strict testing and standards requirements for some imported products. In addition, a lack of transparency in the regulatory process makes it difficult for businesses to plan for changes in the domestic market structure. The April 11, 2006 U.S.-China Joint Commission on Commerce and Trade (JCCT) produced agreements on key U.S. trade concerns ranging from market access to U.S. beef, medical devices, and telecommunications; to the enforcement of intellectual property rights, including, significantly, software. The JCCT also produced an agreement to establish a U.S.-China High Technology and Strategic Trade Working Group to review export control cooperation and facilitate high technology trade.

The United States is one of China's primary suppliers of power generating equipment, aircraft and parts, computers and industrial machinery, raw materials, and chemical and agricultural products. However, U.S. exporters continue to have concerns about fair market access due to strict testing and standards requirements for some imported products. In addition, a lack of transparency in the regulatory process makes it difficult for businesses to plan for changes in the domestic market structure. The April 11, 2006 U.S.-China Joint Commission on Commerce and Trade (JCCT) produced agreements on key U.S. trade concerns ranging from market access to U.S. beef, medical devices, and telecommunications; to the enforcement of intellectual property rights, including, significantly, software. The JCCT also produced an agreement to establish a U.S.-China High Technology and Strategic Trade Working Group to review export control cooperation and facilitate high technology trade.

 

By 2017, the imposition of [[tariff]]s by U.S. President [[Donald J. Trump]] began to redress the imbalance.  China's economy was developed over those early decades of the 21st century as a coastal, manufacturing economy entirely dependent on exports.  Young people left their home villages in the countryside to seek work in coastal factories. The prosperity was all built on access to the U.S. consumer market, and Americans' appetite for cheap manufactured goods. Scant attention was paid to developing a domestic service sector economy, while the vast interior remained impoverished, and increasingly so as young people abandoned rural agricultural work for urban factory work.

By 2017, the imposition of [[tariff]]s by U.S. President [[Donald J. Trump]] began to redress the imbalance.  China's economy was developed over those early decades of the 21st century as a coastal, manufacturing economy entirely dependent on exports.  Young people left their home villages in the countryside to seek work in coastal factories. The prosperity was all built on access to the U.S. consumer market, and Americans' appetite for cheap manufactured goods. Scant attention was paid to developing a domestic service sector economy, while the vast interior remained impoverished, and increasingly so as young people abandoned rural agricultural work for urban factory work.

====Tiananmen Square massacre====

====Tiananmen Square massacre====

Army ambulances, who attempted to give aid, were shot up, as was a Sino-Japanese hospital ambulance. With the medical crew dead, the wounded driver attempted to ram attackers but was blown to pieces by anti-tank weapon.

The death of Hu Yaobang on April 15, 1989, coupled with growing economic hardship caused by high inflation, triggered protests by students, intellectuals, and others. The protesters camped out in Beijing's Tiananmen Square to mourn Hu's death and to protest against those who would slow reform.  

Martial law was declared on May 20, 1989. Late on June 3 and early on the morning of June 4, military units were brought into Beijing. They used armed force to clear demonstrators from the streets. There are no official estimates of deaths in Beijing, but most observers believe that casualties numbered in the hundreds.

In another incident, the troops shot one of their own officers.  “27 Army officer shot dead by own troops, apparently because he faltered. Troops explained they would be shot if they hadn’t shot the officer.”

Near the end of the [[Cold War]] China's Communist Party faced the challenge of large-scale protests in Beijing's [[Tiananmen Square]] and in more than 100 other cities including [[Shanghai]] between April 15, 1989, and June 4, 1989.  Disagreements about how to respond split the top Party leadership and forced out the Party General Secretary at the time, Zhao Ziyang. The decision by Deng Xiaoping, then China's Paramount Leader, to order the [[People's Liberation Army|People's army]] to break up pro-[[democracy]] protests by force undermined the Party's legitimacy. 

The true scale of the murders went unreported in Western media for nearly 30 years,<ref>https://archive.is/6nzNI#selection-2459.16-2479.159</ref> as globalists negotiated trade agreements and welcomed the [[PRC]] into the World Trade Organization.  Western sources, including [[Wikipedia]], toe the Chinese Communist Party party line on many events and details, including casualty statistics.

In the months prior to the fall of the [[Berlin Wall]], pro-democracy movements worldwide flourished and socialism fell into disrepute. In an object lesson about the duplicity of socialist slogans, buzzwords, and phrases geared toward the youth and the naive - China's People's Army killed 10,000 of China's own people.<ref>"[https://dailycaller.com/2017/12/24/chinese-killed-at-least-10000-at-tiananmen-square-newly-declassified-documents-claim/ Chinese Killed At Least 10,000 At Tiananmen Square, Newly Declassified Documents Claim]", ''Daily Caller'', 12/24/2017.</ref>  In fact, China's People's Army has killed more of China's own people than it has ever been used against any foreign enemy in its entire history.

In an object lesson about the [[duplicity]] of socialist slogans, buzzwords, and phrases geared toward seducing the youth and the naive - China's People's Army killed 10,000 of China's own people.<ref>"[https://dailycaller.com/2017/12/24/chinese-killed-at-least-10000-at-tiananmen-square-newly-declassified-documents-claim/ Chinese Killed At Least 10,000 At Tiananmen Square, Newly Declassified Documents Claim]", ''Daily Caller'', 12/24/2017.</ref>  In fact, China's People's Army has killed more of China's own people than any foreign enemy in its entire history.

====Persecution of Falun Gong====

====Persecution of Falun Gong====

Chinese officials are quite open that [[Belt and Road]] is aimed at creating a Eurasia wide Chinese led bloc to counter the United States.

Chinese officials are quite open that [[Belt and Road]] is aimed at creating a Eurasia wide Chinese led bloc to counter the United States.

China has been looking to construct a 120-kilometer mega canal cutting through the Isthmus of Kra, the narrowest part of the Malay Peninsula in [[Thailand]].  This will open the [[South China Sea]] to the [[Indian Ocean]], bypassing the Strait of Malacca.  What China is eyeing is a canal project in Thailand called the Kra Canal and the Thai leadership seems to be on board.  Through this canal, China is trying to reduce dependence on the Strait of Malacca. Currently, 80 percent of China's oil imports passed through the South China Sea.  

China has been looking to construct a 120-kilometer mega canal cutting through the Isthmus of Kra, the narrowest part of the Malay Peninsula in [[Thailand]].  This will open the [[South China Sea]] to the [[Indian Ocean]], bypassing the [[Strait of Malacca]].  What China is eyeing is a canal project in Thailand called the Kra Canal and the Thai leadership seems to be on board.  Through this canal, China is trying to reduce dependence on the Strait of Malacca. Currently, 80 percent of China's oil imports passed through the South China Sea.  

The Strait of Malacca is a key reason why China has not been able to grow too powerful.  Democratic and powers such as India, Australia, and

The Strait of Malacca is a key reason why China has not been able to grow too powerful.  Democratic and powers such as India, Australia, and

====Uyghur genocide====

====Uyghur genocide====

Natural population growth in Xinjiang has declined dramatically; growth rates fell by 84 percent in the two largest Uyghur prefectures between 2015 and 2018, and declined further in several minority regions in 2019. For 2020, one Uyghur region set an unprecedented near-zero birth rate target: a mere 1.05 per mille, compared to 19.66 per mille in 2018. This was intended to be achieved through “family planning work.”

Natural population growth in Xinjiang has declined dramatically; growth rates fell by 84 percent in the two largest Uyghur prefectures between 2015 and 2018, and declined further in several minority regions in 2019. For 2020, one Uyghur region set an unprecedented near-zero birth rate target: a mere 1.05 per mille, compared to 19.66 per mille in 2018. This was intended to be achieved through “family planning work.”

==References==

==References==

== See also ==

== See also ==