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The Peace Conference met in [[Paris]] from January 1919 to January 1920, finishing its most important work regarding Germany in June 1919. It wrote five major treaties: (1) the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, June 28, 1919; (2) the Treaty of Saint-Germain with Austria, Sept. 10, 1919; (3) the Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria, Nov. 27, 1919; (4) the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary, June 4, 1920; and (5) the Treaty of Sèvres with Turkey, Aug. 20, 1920 (which was modified by the Treaty of Lausanne, July 24, 1923).
The Peace Conference met in [[Paris]] from January 1919 to January 1920, finishing its most important work regarding Germany in June 1919. It wrote five major treaties: (1) the Treaty of Versailles with Germany, June 28, 1919; (2) the Treaty of Saint-Germain with Austria, Sept. 10, 1919; (3) the Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria, Nov. 27, 1919; (4) the Treaty of Trianon with Hungary, June 4, 1920; and (5) the Treaty of Sèvres with Turkey, Aug. 20, 1920 (which was modified by the Treaty of Lausanne, July 24, 1923).
==Big Four==
==Big Four==
[[Woodrow Wilson]] was the hope of idealists everywhere; even the Germans looked to him for a statesmanlike peace. But the cry for vengeance was strong among the Allies, especially the French. Wilson sought the self-determination of peoples, but there were many overlapping interests and no simple solution was possible. Secret agreements among the Allies, especially promises made to Italy, hindered Wilson's treaty-making, and, idolized though he was by the peoples of Europe, he had to modify his aims to the practical demands of [[Georges Clemenceau]] of France, [[David Lloyd George]] of Britain, and Vittorio Orlando of Italy.
[[Woodrow Wilson]] was the hope of idealists everywhere; even the Germans looked to him for a statesmanlike peace. But the cry for [[vengeance]] was strong among the Allies, especially the French. Wilson sought the self-determination of peoples, but there were many overlapping interests and no simple solution was possible. Secret agreements among the Allies, especially promises made to Italy, hindered Wilson's treaty-making, and, idolized though he was by the peoples of Europe, he had to modify his aims to the practical demands of [[Georges Clemenceau]] of France, [[David Lloyd George]] of Britain, and Vittorio Orlando of Italy.
Thirty-two nations were represented, but Germany, Austria and the Soviet Union were not invited. Each delegation brought specialists who analyzed information on the geography, history, and economic conditions of the various countries whose claims had to be adjudicated. Orlando was dissatisfied with territorial gains given Italy, and walked out of the inner council, which was charged with final decisions. That left the "Big Three," Wilson, Clemenceau, and Lloyd George, to decide the major terms of the peace.
Thirty-two nations were represented, but Germany, Austria and the Soviet Union were not invited. Each delegation brought specialists who analyzed information on the geography, history, and economic conditions of the various countries whose claims had to be adjudicated. Orlando was dissatisfied with territorial gains given Italy, and walked out of the inner council, which was charged with final decisions. That left the "Big Three," Wilson, Clemenceau, and Lloyd George, to decide the major terms of the peace.
==Ottoman Empire divided up==
==Ottoman Empire divided up==
The defunct Ottoman Empire was divided into British and French mandates. Secret treaties among the powers had provided for such distribution, but after an uprising among the Turks, led by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) Pasha]], the Allies agreed to a revision of their demands.<ref>The 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, which superseded the Treaty of Sevres, permitted Turkey to retain Eastern Thrace. Armenia was returned to Turkey.</ref> Syria was given to France; Britain received Mesopotamia, Transjordan, and Palestine; the Dodecanese Islands in the Aegean were given to Italy; the Hejaz, an Arabian territory along the Red Sea, was to be independent; it became Saudi Arabia.
The defunct Ottoman Empire was divided into British and French mandates. Secret treaties among the powers had provided for such distribution, but after an uprising among the Turks, led by [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk|Mustafa Kemal (Atatürk) Pasha]], the Allies agreed to a revision of their demands.<ref>The 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, which superseded the Treaty of Sevres, permitted Turkey to retain Eastern Thrace. Armenia was returned to Turkey.</ref> Syria was given to France; Britain received Mesopotamia, Transjordan, and Palestine; the Dodecanese Islands in the Aegean were given to Italy; the [[Hejaz]], an Arabian territory along the Red Sea, was to be independent; it became Saudi Arabia.
Wilson was upset by repeated violations of his principle of self-determination of peoples, but he was particularly angered by Japan's acquisition of Tsingtao (Qingdao) in China. Japan agreed to return it to China in the future and did so in 1922.
Wilson was upset by repeated violations of his principle of self-determination of peoples, but he was particularly angered by Japan's acquisition of Tsingtao (Qingdao) in China. Japan agreed to return it to China in the future and did so in 1922.
Germany (and the defunct Austro-Hungarian Empire) were declared to be guilty of starting the war. Reparations were imposed on Germany, and long disputes raged over what should be included in the list of damages to be paid by Germany. The Allies wanted Germany to pay the direct costs of the war plus all future veterans benefits. At first no fixed sum was stated, then in 1921 the figure of $33 billion became the minimum figure. Germany began payments, but negotiated reduced amounts and in 1932 stopped all payments.
Germany (and the defunct Austro-Hungarian Empire) were declared to be guilty of starting the war. Reparations were imposed on Germany, and long disputes raged over what should be included in the list of damages to be paid by Germany. The Allies wanted Germany to pay the direct costs of the war plus all future veterans benefits. At first no fixed sum was stated, then in 1921 the figure of $33 billion became the minimum figure. Germany began payments, but negotiated reduced amounts and in 1932 stopped all payments.
==New nations==
==New nations==
[[File:Map of the Ukrainian Republic in 1919, taken from the Memorandum on Ukrainian Independence, presented to the Peace Conference by the Delegation of the Ukrainian Republic.jpg|350px|thumbnail|Borders claimed by the [[Ukraine|Ukrainian People's Republic]] delegation at the Paris Peace Conference in 1919 and 1920. The proposals were rejected.]]
The principle of self-determination of ethnic nationalities shaped most of the territorial settlements. A number of new states were created whose nationalistic aspirations, long submerged, were finally realize. Poland, which had been partitioned in the 1790s, was now restored. Indeed, a Polish Republic was already operational at the end of 1918. The Conference pondered how to draw its boundaries; a key decision was a strip of territory, known as the "Polish Corridor," that gave Poland access to the Baltic. This "corridor" cut off East Prussia from the rest of Germany. The new Baltic states of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, as well as Finland, became independent of Russia.
The principle of self-determination of ethnic nationalities shaped most of the territorial settlements. A number of new states were created whose nationalistic aspirations, long submerged, were finally realize. Poland, which had been partitioned in the 1790s, was now restored. Indeed, a Polish Republic was already operational at the end of 1918. The Conference pondered how to draw its boundaries; a key decision was a strip of territory, known as the "Polish Corridor," that gave Poland access to the Baltic. This "corridor" cut off East Prussia from the rest of Germany. The new Baltic states of Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, as well as Finland, became independent of Russia.
Irish nationalists in the U.S. thought Wilson had promised to work for Irish independence if the Irish supported his war effort. At Versailles Wilson made no effort to redeem any such promises, and the Irish Americans felt betrayed. They turned against Wilson and his Versailles treaty.
Irish nationalists in the U.S. thought Wilson had promised to work for Irish independence if the Irish supported his war effort. At Versailles Wilson made no effort to redeem any such promises, and the Irish Americans felt betrayed. They turned against Wilson and his Versailles treaty.
The Ukrainian People's Republic delegation also made claims: {{quote|In late 1918, a struggle was taking place on the Ukrainian territory of the former Russian empire, between the Soviet authorities, White Russian nationalists, and partisans of Ukrainian independence, over the reconfiguration and control of the state. At the same time, the Ukrainian People’s Republic decided to send a delegation to the Paris Peace Conference (1918-1920), at which it had only observer status. The written documents produced on this occasion, of which the BDIC’s Klotz archive has a particularly significant collection, give an insight into the cognitive horizon of the Ukrainian pro-independence elite of the time.|Thomas Chopard}}<ref>{{cite web|url=https://shs.cairn.info/journal-materiaux-pour-l-histoire-de-notre-temps-2014-1-page-180?lang=en|title=Identification, Legitimation, and Stigmatization: The Ukrainian Delegation to the Paris Peace Conference (1918-20) through its Written Materials|author=Thomas Chopard|quote=|date=January 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://history.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1919Parisv05/d79|title=Notes of a Meeting Held at President Wilson’s House in the Place des Etats-Unis, Paris, at 4:15 p.m. on Wednesday, May 21, 1919|publisher=Office of the Historian|date=May 21, 1919}}</ref>
==League of Nations==
==League of Nations==
It was hoped by Wilson, South African General [[Jan Smuts]], British Lord Robert Cecil, and others idealists that a [[League of Nations]] would guarantee the security of all nations. There was general agreement as to the advisability of such a league; only its form and powers were in question. The league was created with four operating groups: a secretariat, council, assembly, and an international court of justice. The league set up machinery which could be used by member states to prevent war. It also set up various agencies to deal with other problems. The League went into operation, but could not prevent or end wars.
It was hoped by Wilson, South African General [[Jan Smuts]], British Lord Robert Cecil, and others idealists that a [[League of Nations]] would guarantee the security of all nations. There was general agreement as to the advisability of such a league; only its form and powers were in question. The league was created with four operating groups: a secretariat, council, assembly, and an international court of justice. The league set up machinery which could be used by member states to prevent war. It also set up various agencies to deal with other problems. The League went into operation, but could not prevent or end wars.
==See also==
==See also==
*[[World War I]]
*[[World War II]]
==Further reading==
*[https://www.thenewamerican.com/culture/history/item/32722-100th-anniversary-of-signing-the-treaty-of-versailles 100th Anniversary of Signing the Treaty of Versailles], by Kurt Hyde of ''[[The New American]]'', June 28, 2019.
==Bibliography==
==Bibliography==
* Albrecht-Carrie, Rene. ''Italy at the Paris Peace Conference'' (1938) [http://www.questia.com/read/27941224?title=Italy%20at%20the%20Paris%20Peace%20Conference%20(Part%20One%20%22The%20Orlando-Sonnino%20Ministry%20(November%2c%201918%20-%20June%2c%201919)%22) online edition]
* Albrecht-Carrie, Rene. ''Italy at the Paris Peace Conference'' (1938) [http://www.questia.com/read/27941224?title=Italy%20at%20the%20Paris%20Peace%20Conference%20(Part%20One%20%22The%20Orlando-Sonnino%20Ministry%20(November%2c%201918%20-%20June%2c%201919)%22) online edition]
* Ambrosius, Lloyd E. "Woodrow Wilson and George W. Bush: Historical Comparisons of Ends and Means in Their Foreign Policies," ''Diplomatic History'', 30 (June 2006), 509–43. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/loi/diph online at Blackwell Synergy]; also [http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-567650/Woodrow-Wilson-and-World-War.html excerpt online]
* Ambrosius, Lloyd E. "Woodrow Wilson and George W. Bush: Historical Comparisons of Ends and Means in Their Foreign Policies," ''Diplomatic History'', 30 (June 2006), 509–43. [http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/loi/diph online at Blackwell Synergy]; also [http://goliath.ecnext.com/coms2/gi_0199-567650/Woodrow-Wilson-and-World-War.html excerpt online]
* Ambrosius, Lloyd E. ''Woodrow Wilson and the American Diplomatic Tradition: The Treaty Fight in Perspective'' (1990) [http://www.amazon.com/Woodrow-Wilson-American-Diplomatic-Tradition/dp/0521385857/ref=sr_1_17/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192011082&sr=8-17 excerpt and text search]
* Ambrosius, Lloyd E. ''Woodrow Wilson and the American Diplomatic Tradition: The Treaty Fight in Perspective'' (1990) [https://www.amazon.com/Woodrow-Wilson-American-Diplomatic-Tradition/dp/0521385857/ref=sr_1_17/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192011082&sr=8-17 excerpt and text search]
* Andelman, David A. ''A Shattered Peace: Versailles 1919 and the Price We Pay Today'' (2007) popular history that stresses multiple long-term disasters caused by Treaty. [http://www.amazon.com/Shattered-Peace-Versailles-Price-Today/dp/0471788988/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210532673&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Andelman, David A. ''A Shattered Peace: Versailles 1919 and the Price We Pay Today'' (2007) popular history that stresses multiple long-term disasters caused by Treaty. [https://www.amazon.com/Shattered-Peace-Versailles-Price-Today/dp/0471788988/ref=pd_bbs_sr_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210532673&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Bailey; Thomas A. ''Wilson and the Peacemakers: Combining Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace and Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal'' (1947) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/wilson-and-the-peacemakers-combining-woodrow-wilson-and-the-lost-peace-and-woodrow-wilson-and-the-great-betrayal-by-thomas-a-bailey.jsp online edition]
* Bailey; Thomas A. ''Wilson and the Peacemakers: Combining Woodrow Wilson and the Lost Peace and Woodrow Wilson and the Great Betrayal'' (1947) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/wilson-and-the-peacemakers-combining-woodrow-wilson-and-the-lost-peace-and-woodrow-wilson-and-the-great-betrayal-by-thomas-a-bailey.jsp online edition]
* Birdsall, Paul. ''Versailles twenty years after'' (1941) well balanced older account
* Birdsall, Paul. ''Versailles twenty years after'' (1941) well balanced older account
* Boemeke, Manfred F., et al., eds. ''The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years'' (1998). major collection of important papers by scholars [http://www.amazon.com/Treaty-Versailles-Reassessment-Publications-Historical/dp/0521621321/ref=sip_rech_dp_7 excerpt and text search]
* Boemeke, Manfred F., et al., eds. ''The Treaty of Versailles: A Reassessment after 75 Years'' (1998). major collection of important papers by scholars [https://www.amazon.com/Treaty-Versailles-Reassessment-Publications-Historical/dp/0521621321/ref=sip_rech_dp_7 excerpt and text search]
* Clements, Kendrick, A. ''Woodrow Wilson: World Statesman'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Woodrow-Wilson-Statesman-Kendrick-Clements/dp/1566632676/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192010890&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Clements, Kendrick, A. ''Woodrow Wilson: World Statesman'' (1999) [https://www.amazon.com/Woodrow-Wilson-Statesman-Kendrick-Clements/dp/1566632676/ref=sr_1_1/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192010890&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
* Cooper, John Milton. ''Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations'' (2001) 454pp [http://www.amazon.com/Breaking-Heart-World-Milton-Cooper/dp/0521807867/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192010636&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Cooper, John Milton. ''Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations'' (2001) 454pp [https://www.amazon.com/Breaking-Heart-World-Milton-Cooper/dp/0521807867/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192010636&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Greene, Theodore P. Ed. ''Wilson at Versailles'' (1957), shortr excerpts from scholars [http://www.questia.com/read/9467242 online edition]
* Greene, Theodore P. Ed. ''Wilson at Versailles'' (1957), shortr excerpts from scholars [http://www.questia.com/read/9467242 online edition]
* Henig, Ruth. ''Versailles and After: 1919-1933'' (2nd ed. 1995), 100 pages; brief introduction by scholar [http://www.amazon.com/Versailles-After-1919-1933-Lancaster-Pamphlets/dp/0415127106/ref=pd_bxgy_b_text_c excerpt and text search]
* Henig, Ruth. ''Versailles and After: 1919-1933'' (2nd ed. 1995), 100 pages; brief introduction by scholar [https://www.amazon.com/Versailles-After-1919-1933-Lancaster-Pamphlets/dp/0415127106/ref=pd_bxgy_b_text_c excerpt and text search]
* Keynes, John Maynard, ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace'' (1920) famous criticism by leading economist [https://books.google.com/books?id=0VcKN-RbPnoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Economic+intitle:Consequences+intitle:of+intitle:the+intitle:Peace&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 full text online]
* Keynes, John Maynard, ''The Economic Consequences of the Peace'' (1920) famous criticism by leading economist [https://books.google.com/books?id=0VcKN-RbPnoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=intitle:Economic+intitle:Consequences+intitle:of+intitle:the+intitle:Peace&lr=&num=30&as_brr=0 full text online]
* Knock, Thomas J. ''To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order'' (1995) [http://www.amazon.com/End-All-Wars-Woodrow-Wilson/dp/0691001502/ref=sr_1_8/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192010890&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]
* Knock, Thomas J. ''To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order'' (1995) [https://www.amazon.com/End-All-Wars-Woodrow-Wilson/dp/0691001502/ref=sr_1_8/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192010890&sr=8-8 excerpt and text search]
* Lederer, Ivo J. ''The Versailles Settlement--Was It Foredoomed to Failure?'' (1960) excerpts from scholars [http://www.questia.com/read/6098836?title=The%20Versailles%20Settlement--Was%20It%20Foredoomed%20to%20Failure%3f online edition]
* Lederer, Ivo J. ''The Versailles Settlement--Was It Foredoomed to Failure?'' (1960) excerpts from scholars [http://www.questia.com/read/6098836?title=The%20Versailles%20Settlement--Was%20It%20Foredoomed%20to%20Failure%3f online edition]
* Levin, Jr., N. Gordon ''Woodrow Wilson and World Politics: America's Response to War and Revolution'' (1968), New Left [http://www.amazon.com/Woodrow-Wilson-World-Politics-Revolution/dp/0195008030/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192011152&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Levin, Jr., N. Gordon ''Woodrow Wilson and World Politics: America's Response to War and Revolution'' (1968), New Left [https://www.amazon.com/Woodrow-Wilson-World-Politics-Revolution/dp/0195008030/ref=sr_1_3/103-4827826-5463040?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1192011152&sr=8-3 excerpt and text search]
* Link, Arthur S. ''Wilson the Diplomatist: A Look at His Major Foreign Policies'' (1957) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=9422144 online edition]
* Link, Arthur S. ''Wilson the Diplomatist: A Look at His Major Foreign Policies'' (1957) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=9422144 online edition]
* Macmillan, Margaret. ''Peacemakers: The Paris Conference of 1919 and Its Attempt to End War'' (2002), also published as ''Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World'' (2003); highly influential study [http://www.amazon.com/Paris-1919-Months-Changed-World/dp/0375760520/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210532673&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Macmillan, Margaret. ''Peacemakers: The Paris Conference of 1919 and Its Attempt to End War'' (2002), also published as ''Paris 1919: Six Months That Changed the World'' (2003); highly influential study [https://www.amazon.com/Paris-1919-Months-Changed-World/dp/0375760520/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1210532673&sr=8-2 excerpt and text search]
* Mayer, Arno J., ''Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking: Containment and Counter-revolution at Versailles, 1918-1919'' (1967), leftist
* Mayer, Arno J., ''Politics and Diplomacy of Peacemaking: Containment and Counter-revolution at Versailles, 1918-1919'' (1967), leftist
* Newton, Douglas. ''British Policy and the Weimar Republic, 1918-1919'' (1997). 484 pgs.
* Newton, Douglas. ''British Policy and the Weimar Republic, 1918-1919'' (1997). 484 pgs.
* Schwabe, Klaus. ''Woodrow Wilson, Revolutionary Germany, and Peacemaking, 1918-1919: Missionary Diplomacy and the Realities of Power'' (1985) [http://www.questia.com/read/104678514 online edition]
* Schwabe, Klaus. ''Woodrow Wilson, Revolutionary Germany, and Peacemaking, 1918-1919: Missionary Diplomacy and the Realities of Power'' (1985) [http://www.questia.com/read/104678514 online edition]
* Steiner, Zara. ''The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919-1933'' (Oxford History of Modern Europe) (2007), major scholarly work [http://www.amazon.com/Lights-that-Failed-International-1919-1933/dp/0199226865/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1231806541&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Steiner, Zara. ''The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919-1933'' (Oxford History of Modern Europe) (2007), major scholarly work [https://www.amazon.com/Lights-that-Failed-International-1919-1933/dp/0199226865/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1231806541&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
* Walworth, Arthur. ''Wilson and His Peacemakers: American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919'' (1986) 618pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104399613 online edition]
* Walworth, Arthur. ''Wilson and His Peacemakers: American Diplomacy at the Paris Peace Conference, 1919'' (1986) 618pp [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104399613 online edition]
* Watson, David Robin. ''Georges Clemenceau: A Political Biography'' (1976) 463 pgs. [http://www.questia.com/read/102168963?title=Georges%20Clemenceau%3a%20A%20Political%20Biography online edition]
* Watson, David Robin. ''Georges Clemenceau: A Political Biography'' (1976) 463 pgs. [http://www.questia.com/read/102168963?title=Georges%20Clemenceau%3a%20A%20Political%20Biography online edition]
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