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clean up, typos fixed: 1919-20 → 1919–20, 1877-1878 → 1877–1878 (6)
Talaat Pasha, the powerful Ottoman interior minister during World War I, certainly didn’t disguise his objective. “The Government . . . has decided to destroy completely all the indicated [Armenians] persons living in Turkey,” he brusquely reminded officials in Aleppo in a September 1915 dispatch. “An end must be put to their existence . . . and no regard must be paid to either age or sex, or to conscientious scruples.”
Talaat Pasha, the powerful Ottoman interior minister during World War I, certainly didn’t disguise his objective. “The Government . . . has decided to destroy completely all the indicated [Armenians] persons living in Turkey,” he brusquely reminded officials in Aleppo in a September 1915 dispatch. “An end must be put to their existence . . . and no regard must be paid to either age or sex, or to conscientious scruples.”
US Ambassador Henry Morgenthau, flooded with accounts of the torture, death marches, and butchery being inflicted on the Armenians, remonstrated with Talaat to no avail. “It is no use for you to argue,” Morgenthau was told. “We have already disposed of three quarters of the Armenians. . . . The hatred between the Turks and Armenians is now so intense that we have got to finish them. If we don’t, they will plan their revenge. . . . We will not have the Armenians anywhere in Anatolia.”</blockquote></ref> <i>Turkish and Kurdish mobs attacking Armenian caravans with shouts and cries of "Allah" and "jihad".</i><ref>The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies. United States: Transaction Publishers, 2011. [https://books.google.com/books?id=K3monyE4CVQC&pg=PA298 298].<blockquote>...one should turn to survivor accounts and memoirs that describe the Turkish and Kurdish mobs attacking Armenian caravans with shouts and cries of "Allah" and "jihad"...</blockquote></ref> Impeccably researched account<ref>Ze'evi, Dror., Morris, Benny. [https://books.google.com/books?id=THSPDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey’s Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924]. United Kingdom: Harvard University Press, 2019.</ref> shows that the <i>Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey’s Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924</i>, was: <i> actually part of a single, continuing, and intentional effort to wipe out Anatolia’s Christian population and create a pure Muslim nation.</i>
US Ambassador Henry Morgenthau, flooded with accounts of the torture, death marches, and butchery being inflicted on the Armenians, remonstrated with Talaat to no avail. “It is no use for you to argue,” Morgenthau was told. “We have already disposed of three quarters of the Armenians. . . . The hatred between the Turks and Armenians is now so intense that we have got to finish them. If we don’t, they will plan their revenge. . . . We will not have the Armenians anywhere in Anatolia.”</blockquote></ref> ''Turkish and Kurdish mobs attacking Armenian caravans with shouts and cries of "Allah" and "jihad".''<ref>The Armenian Genocide: Cultural and Ethical Legacies. United States: Transaction Publishers, 2011. [https://books.google.com/books?id=K3monyE4CVQC&pg=PA298 298].<blockquote>...one should turn to survivor accounts and memoirs that describe the Turkish and Kurdish mobs attacking Armenian caravans with shouts and cries of "Allah" and "jihad"...</blockquote></ref> Impeccably researched account<ref>Ze'evi, Dror., Morris, Benny. [https://books.google.com/books?id=THSPDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover The Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey’s Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924]. United Kingdom: Harvard University Press, 2019.</ref> shows that the ''Thirty-Year Genocide: Turkey’s Destruction of Its Christian Minorities, 1894–1924'', was: '' actually part of a single, continuing, and intentional effort to wipe out Anatolia’s Christian population and create a pure Muslim nation.''
[[Turkey]] (which in 1923 became the successor state to the Ottoman Empire) has denied its responsibility, suggesting that preplanned [[genocide]] did not occur. Turkey says it was a confusing period where many people were killed because of political uprisings. To this day, Turkey denies it and did not even release their records.
[[Turkey]] (which in 1923 became the successor state to the Ottoman Empire) has denied its responsibility, suggesting that preplanned [[genocide]] did not occur. Turkey says it was a confusing period where many people were killed because of political uprisings. To this day, Turkey denies it and did not even release their records.
The Turks often used Muslim Kurds as intermediary oppressors between themselves and the Christian Armenians. Less firmly Islamic Kurds, however, often aided persecuted Armenians, and at times when the Kurds themselves were oppressed, Kurdish-Armenian solidarity emerged. The complex history of Turkish-Kurdish-Armenian relations culminated in Kurdish complicity in the genocide committed against the Armenians during World War I. Thereafter, Kurds and Kurdish independence movements became the chief targets of Turkish policies attempting to Turkify all Anatolia.<ref>Tessa Hofmann, Gerayer Koutcharian, and Dorothea Lam, "The History of Armenian-Kurdish Relations in the Ottoman Empire." ''Armenian Review'' 1986 39(4): 1-45. Issn: 0004-2366</ref>
The Turks often used Muslim Kurds as intermediary oppressors between themselves and the Christian Armenians. Less firmly Islamic Kurds, however, often aided persecuted Armenians, and at times when the Kurds themselves were oppressed, Kurdish-Armenian solidarity emerged. The complex history of Turkish-Kurdish-Armenian relations culminated in Kurdish complicity in the genocide committed against the Armenians during World War I. Thereafter, Kurds and Kurdish independence movements became the chief targets of Turkish policies attempting to Turkify all Anatolia.<ref>Tessa Hofmann, Gerayer Koutcharian, and Dorothea Lam, "The History of Armenian-Kurdish Relations in the Ottoman Empire." ''Armenian Review'' 1986 39(4): 1-45. Issn: 0004-2366</ref>
===Armenian nationalists===
===Armenian nationalists===
Following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878, Russians occupied the six Armenian vilayets, and Armenian nationalism was stimulated. In 1880, a revolutionary organization known as the Defenders of the Fatherland was organized in Erzurum. A few years later, in 1885, the Armenakan society was organized, and in 1887 the Hunchagian Party appeared. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktzutun) was formed in 1890.
Following the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, Russians occupied the six Armenian vilayets, and Armenian nationalism was stimulated. In 1880, a revolutionary organization known as the Defenders of the Fatherland was organized in Erzurum. A few years later, in 1885, the Armenakan society was organized, and in 1887 the Hunchagian Party appeared. The Armenian Revolutionary Federation (Dashnaktzutun) was formed in 1890.
The Armenians expected outside assistance in their efforts to break away from Ottoman rule and were led to carry out a number of rash terror actions, including bombing and assassinations. The Russians, therefore, discouraged the Armenian liberation movement from establishing an independent Armenia on the southern borders of Russia. But the Russian government also took active steps to prevent the massacres of Armenians by Sultan Abdul Hamid.
The Armenians expected outside assistance in their efforts to break away from Ottoman rule and were led to carry out a number of rash terror actions, including bombing and assassinations. The Russians, therefore, discouraged the Armenian liberation movement from establishing an independent Armenia on the southern borders of Russia. But the Russian government also took active steps to prevent the massacres of Armenians by Sultan Abdul Hamid.
In August and September 1894, a series of massacres occurred in the vicinity of Sassun as a result of an uprising that was put down with ferocity by Kurdish irregular cavalry (Hamidieh regiments). The massacres soon spread, and in October and November 1895 there were pogroms at Trabzon, Erzurum, Bitlis, Kurun, Maras, and elsewhere. The essential cause of the massacres lay in the failure of the European powers to secure the reforms envisaged by the Treaty of Berlin for the Asian provinces of the Ottoman Empire. In August 1896 after an attack on the Ottoman Bank in Constantinople a massacre of Armenians occurred in the Ottoman capital; 4,000 to 6,000 Armenians were killed. By the end of 1896 over 80,000 Armenians lad dead in the eastern provinces.
In August and September 1894, a series of massacres occurred in the vicinity of Sassun as a result of an uprising that was put down with ferocity by Kurdish irregular cavalry (Hamidieh regiments). The massacres soon spread, and in October and November 1895 there were pogroms at Trabzon, Erzurum, Bitlis, Kurun, Maras, and elsewhere. The essential cause of the massacres lay in the failure of the European powers to secure the reforms envisaged by the Treaty of Berlin for the Asian provinces of the Ottoman Empire. In August 1896 after an attack on the Ottoman Bank in Constantinople a massacre of Armenians occurred in the Ottoman capital; 4,000 to 6,000 Armenians were killed. By the end of 1896 over 80,000 Armenians lad dead in the eastern provinces.
It is still not clear what role he and his regime played in the massacres of 1894-1896, but massacres set off large-scale protests, especially in the United States and Britain. The protests forced Sultan Abdul-Hamid II to appoint an investigating commission, joined by British, French, and Russian delegates, which produced a minor reform program. Despite his policy of ruthless repression, the sultan could not halt the military and political disintegration of his regime, and he was replaced in 1908 by the political revolution of the Young Turks, who sought to address the Ottoman crisis with new and radical ideas.
It is still not clear what role he and his regime played in the massacres of 1894–1896, but massacres set off large-scale protests, especially in the United States and Britain. The protests forced Sultan Abdul-Hamid II to appoint an investigating commission, joined by British, French, and Russian delegates, which produced a minor reform program. Despite his policy of ruthless repression, the sultan could not halt the military and political disintegration of his regime, and he was replaced in 1908 by the political revolution of the Young Turks, who sought to address the Ottoman crisis with new and radical ideas.
===Young Turks===
===Young Turks===
The Treaty of Sèvres, Aug. 10, 1920, provided for an independent Armenia. However, the situation was drastically changed by Turkish military assaults and the establishment of a Soviet republic in Yerevan, Armenia, in late 1920. A treaty imposed on Armenia by Turkey on December 3 reduced Soviet Armenia to the province of Yerevan. It finally became independent in 1991.
The Treaty of Sèvres, Aug. 10, 1920, provided for an independent Armenia. However, the situation was drastically changed by Turkish military assaults and the establishment of a Soviet republic in Yerevan, Armenia, in late 1920. A treaty imposed on Armenia by Turkey on December 3 reduced Soviet Armenia to the province of Yerevan. It finally became independent in 1991.
In postwar Turkey, international pressure forced war crimes trials in 1919-20 against the Young Turk faction. The triumvirs who ruled Turkey in 1915 and had ordered the genocide—War Minister Enver Pasha, Interior minister Talat Pasha, and defense minister Ahmed Djemal Pasha—were condemned to death. They had fled Turkey but were tracked down and assassinated by Armenians as part of "Operation Nemesis," designed to kill the 200 Turks most involved in the genocide.<ref>It is unclear if Russians or Armenians killed Enver Pasha. Gunter, '' Pursuing the Just Cause,'' p 29.</ref> The new leader of Turkey after the war, [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] had broken with the Young Turk group in 1914, was never involved in the genocide, and ended the privileged position given to Islam. Some 150,000 Armenians lived in Istanbul throughout the period; in the Armenian homeland areas of eastern Turkey almost all the Armenians were gone.
In postwar Turkey, international pressure forced war crimes trials in 1919–20 against the Young Turk faction. The triumvirs who ruled Turkey in 1915 and had ordered the genocide—War Minister Enver Pasha, Interior minister Talat Pasha, and defense minister Ahmed Djemal Pasha—were condemned to death. They had fled Turkey but were tracked down and assassinated by Armenians as part of "Operation Nemesis," designed to kill the 200 Turks most involved in the genocide.<ref>It is unclear if Russians or Armenians killed Enver Pasha. Gunter, '' Pursuing the Just Cause,'' p 29.</ref> The new leader of Turkey after the war, [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] had broken with the Young Turk group in 1914, was never involved in the genocide, and ended the privileged position given to Islam. Some 150,000 Armenians lived in Istanbul throughout the period; in the Armenian homeland areas of eastern Turkey almost all the Armenians were gone.
==Memory==
==Memory==
* Andreopoulos, George J., ed. ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions.'' 1994. 265 pp. Compares Armenia with Cambodia, East Timor, and Kurdistan.
* Andreopoulos, George J., ed. ''Genocide: Conceptual and Historical Dimensions.'' 1994. 265 pp. Compares Armenia with Cambodia, East Timor, and Kurdistan.
* Bloxham, Donald. ''The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians'' (2005), scholarly history of the wartime massacres; 344 pages [http://search.live.com/results.aspx?q=&mkt=en-us&scope=books&FORM=LIVSOP#q=bryce%20toynbee&filter=all&start=1&t=H6WeD-pdFZ8QQ5kq6p5CJw&sq=bryce%20toynbee excerpt and text search]
* Bloxham, Donald. ''The Great Game of Genocide: Imperialism, Nationalism, and the Destruction of the Ottoman Armenians'' (2005), scholarly history of the wartime massacres; 344 pages [http://search.live.com/results.aspx?q=&mkt=en-us&scope=books&FORM=LIVSOP#q=bryce%20toynbee&filter=all&start=1&t=H6WeD-pdFZ8QQ5kq6p5CJw&sq=bryce%20toynbee excerpt and text search]
* Bloxham, Donald. "Rethinking the Armenian Genocide." ''History Today'' 2005 55(6): 28-30. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Bloxham, Donald. "Rethinking the Armenian Genocide." ''History Today'' 2005 55(6): 28–30. Issn: 0018-2753 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Dadrian, Vahakn N. "Patterns of Twentieth Century Genocides: the Armenian, Jewish, and Rwandan Cases." ''Journal of Genocide Research'' 2004 6(4): 487-522. Issn: 1462-3528 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Dadrian, Vahakn N. "Patterns of Twentieth Century Genocides: the Armenian, Jewish, and Rwandan Cases." ''Journal of Genocide Research'' 2004 6(4): 487–522. Issn: 1462-3528 Fulltext: [[Ebsco]]
* Dadrian, Vahakn N. ''The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus'' (1997) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=78126590 online edition]
* Dadrian, Vahakn N. ''The History of the Armenian Genocide: Ethnic Conflict from the Balkans to Anatolia to the Caucasus'' (1997) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=78126590 online edition]
* Dadrian, Vahakn N. ''Warrant for Genocide: Key Elements of Turko-Armenian Conflict.'' 1999. 214 pp.
* Dadrian, Vahakn N. ''Warrant for Genocide: Key Elements of Turko-Armenian Conflict.'' 1999. 214 pp.
* Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. "Down in Turkey, far away': Human Rights, the Armenian Massacres, and Orientalism in Wilhelmine Germany," ''Journal of Modern History'' Volume 79, Number 1, March 2007, pp 80–111
* Anderson, Margaret Lavinia. "Down in Turkey, far away': Human Rights, the Armenian Massacres, and Orientalism in Wilhelmine Germany," ''Journal of Modern History'' Volume 79, Number 1, March 2007, pp 80–111
* Balakian, Peter. ''The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response'' (2003), 475 pp [https://www.amazon.com/Burning-Tigris-Armenian-Genocide-Americas/dp/0060558709/ref=sr_1_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196874166&sr=8-11 excerpt and text search]
* Balakian, Peter. ''The Burning Tigris: The Armenian Genocide and America's Response'' (2003), 475 pp [https://www.amazon.com/Burning-Tigris-Armenian-Genocide-Americas/dp/0060558709/ref=sr_1_11?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196874166&sr=8-11 excerpt and text search]
* Hovannis1an, Richard G. "The Allies and Armenia, 1915-18." ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 1968 3(1): 145-168. Issn: 0022-0094 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0094(196801)3%3A1%3C145%3ATAAA1%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 in Jstor]
* Hovannis1an, Richard G. "The Allies and Armenia, 1915-18." ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 1968 3(1): 145–168. Issn: 0022-0094 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-0094(196801)3%3A1%3C145%3ATAAA1%3E2.0.CO%3B2-8 in Jstor]
* Libaridian, Gerard. "The Ideology of the Young Turk Movement," pp. 37–49. In Gerard Libaridian (Ed.) ''A Crime of Silence, The Armenian Genocide: Permanent Peoples' Tribunal.'' (London: Zed Books, 1985).
* Libaridian, Gerard. "The Ideology of the Young Turk Movement," pp. 37–49. In Gerard Libaridian (Ed.) ''A Crime of Silence, The Armenian Genocide: Permanent Peoples' Tribunal.'' (London: Zed Books, 1985).
* Nassibian, Akaby ''Britain and the Armenian Question: 1915-1923.'' (1984).
* Nassibian, Akaby ''Britain and the Armenian Question: 1915-1923.'' (1984).
* Peroomian, Rubina. ''Literary Responses to Catastrophe: A Comparison of the Armenian and the Jewish Experience'' (1993), focus on work of Armenian authors: Zabel Esayan (1878-1943), Suren Partevian (1876-1921), Aram Andonian (1875-1952), and Hakob Oshakan (1883-1948).
* Peroomian, Rubina. ''Literary Responses to Catastrophe: A Comparison of the Armenian and the Jewish Experience'' (1993), focus on work of Armenian authors: Zabel Esayan (1878-1943), Suren Partevian (1876-1921), Aram Andonian (1875-1952), and Hakob Oshakan (1883-1948).
* Ravitch, Norman. ''The Armenian Catastrophe: Of History, Murder & Sin," ''Encounter'', December 1981, pp. 69–84.
* Ravitch, Norman. ''The Armenian Catastrophe: Of History, Murder & Sin," ''Encounter'', December 1981, pp. 69–84.
* Suny, Ronald Grigor. "Truth in Telling: Reconciling Realities in the Genocide of the Ottoman Armenians," ''American Historical Review'' October 2009, Vol. 114, No. 4: 930-946.
* Suny, Ronald Grigor. "Truth in Telling: Reconciling Realities in the Genocide of the Ottoman Armenians," ''American Historical Review'' October 2009, Vol. 114, No. 4: 930–946.
==Primary sources==
==Primary sources==
==See also==
==See also==
*[[Turkiye#.22The_Thirty-Year_Genocide.22_.281894.E2.80.931924.29|"The Thirty-Year Genocide" (1894–1924)]]
*[[Turkiye#.22The Thirty-Year Genocide.22 .281894.E2.80.931924.29|"The Thirty-Year Genocide" (1894–1924)]]
==Related==
==Related==
[[File:TYT genocide and hypocrisy.jpg|thumb|TYT, [[Gaza GenoLIE]], genocide and hypocrisy]]
[[File:TYT genocide and hypocrisy.jpg|thumb|TYT, [[Gaza GenoLIE]], genocide and hypocrisy]]