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| | == Religious Beliefs == | | == Religious Beliefs == |
| − | Newton was an [[Arian]] who rejected the Trinity and was ambiguous about the divinity of Christ. As his leading biographer concludes, "Well before 1675, Newton had become an Arian in the original sense of the term." That is, he emphasized the powers of God the father and deemphasized Jesus.<ref>Westfall, ''Never at Rest'' p. 103. Westfall notes, p. 350, "No evidence at all indicates that Newton ceased to be an Arian."</ref> The consensus of modern scholars is that he was an Arian. | + | Newton was an [[Arian]] who rejected the Trinity and was ambiguous about the divinity of Christ. As his leading biographer concludes, "Well before 1675, Newton had become an Arian in the original sense of the term." That is, he emphasized the powers of God the father and deemphasized Jesus.<ref>Westfall, ''Never at Rest'' p. 103. Westfall notes, p. 350, "No evidence at all indicates that Newton ceased to be an Arian."</ref> He considered himself a [[Christian]] who accepted the [[Bible]] as the Word of [[God]],<ref>"I have a fundamental belief in the [[Bible]] as the Word of God, written by those who were inspired. I study the Bible daily." Tiner, J.H. (1975). Isaac Newton: Inventor, Scientist and Teacher. Milford, Michigan, U.S.: Mott Media.</ref> after the age of 25 he devoted much--perhaps most--of his thinking to religion. His unorthodox views violated the rules at Cambridge University, but his colleagues protected him. |
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| − | He considered himself a [[Christian]] who accepted the [[Bible]] as the Word of [[God]],<ref>"I have a fundamental belief in the [[Bible]] as the Word of God, written by those who were inspired. I study the Bible daily." Tiner, J.H. (1975). Isaac Newton: Inventor, Scientist and Teacher. Milford, Michigan, U.S.: Mott Media.</ref> after the age of 25 he devoted much--perhaps most--of his thinking to religion. His unorthodox views violated the rules at Cambridge University, but his colleagues protected him. | |
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| | Newton was a sincere religious believer, who said his discoveries were inspired by [[God]]. He devoted more time to the study of Scripture than to science. Newton wrote, "This most beautiful system of the sun, planets, and comets, could only proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent Being... All variety of created objects which represent order and life in the universe could happen only by the willful reasoning of its original Creator, Whom I call the Lord God." | | Newton was a sincere religious believer, who said his discoveries were inspired by [[God]]. He devoted more time to the study of Scripture than to science. Newton wrote, "This most beautiful system of the sun, planets, and comets, could only proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent Being... All variety of created objects which represent order and life in the universe could happen only by the willful reasoning of its original Creator, Whom I call the Lord God." |
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| | Newton believed that God's creation of the universe was self evident given its grandeur.<ref>Webb, R.K. ed. Knud Haakonssen. “The emergence of Rational Dissent.” Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1996. p19.</ref> He also warned against using his laws to replace the creator. He said, "Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion. God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done."<ref>Tiner, J.H. (1975). Isaac Newton: Inventor, Scientist and Teacher. Milford, Michigan, U.S.: Mott Media.</ref> | | Newton believed that God's creation of the universe was self evident given its grandeur.<ref>Webb, R.K. ed. Knud Haakonssen. “The emergence of Rational Dissent.” Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1996. p19.</ref> He also warned against using his laws to replace the creator. He said, "Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion. God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done."<ref>Tiner, J.H. (1975). Isaac Newton: Inventor, Scientist and Teacher. Milford, Michigan, U.S.: Mott Media.</ref> |
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| − | In an effort to debunk widespread claims of his time that the world would be ending soon, Newton wrote a private manuscript estimating that the world would not end prior to the year A.D. 2060.<ref>http://www.isaac-newton.org/newton_2060.htm</ref>
| + | Some biographers have speculated, without justification, that Newton's views would today be considered those of a [[Unitarian]],<ref>Bell, E.T. Men of Mathematics.</ref> or an [[Arian]]. Those who reject [[Christ]]'s divinity claim without justification that Newton likewise rejected it. The quotations of Newton that they cite say no such thing.<ref>ISAAC NEWTON'S TWELVE ARTICLES ON GOD AND CHRIST,KEYNES MS 8, KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. http://www.isaacnewton.ca/keynes/Keynes_8.en.html "Artic. 9. We need not pray to Christ to intercede for us. If we pray the father aright he will intercede."</ref> |
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| − | ==Reference==
| + | However, the evidence for Newton holding to Arianism is scant. It is true that Newton held a lot to himself, but to say that because of his association with William Whiston, that he is therefore an Arianist is hardly conclusive. It is more probable that Newton held to an Eastern Orthodox view of the Trinity.<ref>ISAAC NEWTON'S TWELVE ARTICLES ON GOD AND CHRIST,KEYNES MS 8, KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. http://www.isaacnewton.ca/keynes/Keynes_8.en.html "Artic. 12. To us there is but one God the father of whom are all things and we of him, and one Lord Jesus Christ by whom are all things and we by him. That is, we are to worship the father alone as God Almighty and Jesus alone as the Lord the Messiah the great King the Lamb of God who was slain and hath redeemed us with his blood and made us kings and Priests."</ref> |
| − | <references/>
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| − | ==Bibliography==
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| − | * Bardi, Jason Socrates. ''The Calculus Wars: Newton, Leibniz, and the Greatest Mathematical Clash of All Time.'' (2006). 277 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Calculus-Wars-Leibniz-Greatest-Mathematical/dp/1560259922/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196345258&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]
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| − | * Bechler, Zev. ''Newton's Physics and the Conceptual Structure of the Scientific Revolution.'' (1991). 588 pp.
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| − | * Berlinski, David. ''Newton's Gift: How Sir Isaac Newton Unlocked the System of the World.'' (2000). 256 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Newtons-Gift-Newton-Unlocked-System/dp/0743217764/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196345336&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
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| − | * Buchwald, Jed Z. and Cohen, I. Bernard, eds. ''Isaac Newton's Natural Philosophy.'' MIT Press, 2001. 354 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Newtons-Natural-Philosophy-Institute-Technology/dp/0262524252/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196345369&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
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| − | * Casini, P. "Newton's Principia and the Philosophers of the Enlightenment." ''Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London'' 1988 42(1): 35-52. Issn: 0035-9149 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0035-9149%28198801%2942%3A1%3C35%3AN%27ATPO%3E2.0.CO%3B2-H Jstor]
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| − | * Christianson, Gale E. ''Isaac Newton and the Scientific Revolution.'' Oxford U. Press, 1996. 160 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Isaac-Newton-Lives-Legacies-Christianson/dp/019530070X/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196337095&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
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| − | * Christianson, Gale E. ''In the Presence of the Creator: Isaac Newton and His Times.'' (1984). 608 pp.
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| − | * Cohen, I. Bernard and Smith, George E., ed. ''The Cambridge Companion to Newton.'' (2002). 500 pp. focuses on philosophical issues only; [http://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Companion-Newton-Companions-Philosophy/dp/0521656966/ref=sr_1_3?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196337095&sr=1-3 excerpt and text search]; [http://www.questia.com/read/105054986 complete edition online]
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| − | * Cohen, I. Bernard. ''The Newtonian Revolution with Illustrations of the Transformation of Scientific Ideas.'' Cambridge U. Press, 1981. 404 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Newtonian-Revolution-I-Bernard-Cohen/dp/0521273803/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196345406&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
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| − | * DeGandt, François. ''Force and Geometry in Newton's Principia.'' Princeton U. Press, 1995. 296 pp.
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| − | * Dobbs, Betty Jo Teeter. ''The Janus Faces of Genius: The Role of Alchemy in Newton's Thought.'' Cambridge U. Press, 1991. 359 pp.
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| − | * Fara, Patricia. ''Newton: The Making of a Genius.'' Columbia U. Press, 2003. 347 pp [http://www.amazon.com/Newton-Making-Genius-Patricia-Fara/dp/023112807X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196345174&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]
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| − | * Fauvel, John et al., ed. ''Let Newton Be!'' Oxford U. Press, (1989). 272 pp.
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| − | * Feingold, Mordechai. ''The Newtonian Moment: Isaac Newton and the Making of Modern Culture.'' (2004) 218 pp. catalog of exhibit at New York Public Library, 2004-5
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| − | * Force, James E. and Hutton, Sarah, ed. ''Newton and Newtonianism: New Studies.'' (2004). 246 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Newton-Newtonianism-International-internationales-dhistoire/dp/1402019696/ref=sr_1_5?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196345450&sr=8-5 excerpt and text search]
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| − | * Gjertsen, Derek. ''The Newton Handbook.'' (1987). 665 pp.
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| − | * Gleick, James. ''Isaac Newton.''(2003). 272 pp.
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| − | * Hall, A. Rupert. ''All Was Light: An Introduction to Newton's Opticks.'' Oxford U. Press, 1993. 252 pp.
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| − | * Hall, A. Rupert. ''Isaac Newton: Adventurer in Thought.'' (1992). 468 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Isaac-Newton-Adventurer-Cambridge-Biographies/dp/052156669X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196336989&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
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| − | * Hofmann, Joseph Ehrenfried. ''Classical Mathematics: A Concise History of the Classical Era in Mathematics.'' (1959) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/classical-mathematics-a-concise-history-of-the-classical-era-in-mathematics-by-joseph-ehrenfried-hofmann.jsp online edition]
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| − | * Hoskin, Michael. "Newton and Newtonianism" pp 130-67 in Hoskin, ed. ''The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Concise-History-Astronomy/dp/0521576008/ref=si3_rdr_bb_product excerpt and text search]
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| − | * Kline, Morris. ''Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times''. Volume: 1. (1972).
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| − | * Mandelbrote, Scott. ''Footprints of the Lion: Isaac Newton at Work.'' Cambridge U. Press, (2001). 142 pp
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| − | * Olby, R.c. et al. ''Companion to the History of Modern Science.'' (1990) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106933088 online edition], on the history of Newtonianism
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| − | * Park, Katharine, and Lorraine Daston, eds. ''The Cambridge History of Science, Volume 3: Early Modern Science'' (2006) [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521572444/ref=sib_dp_bod_toc?ie=UTF8&p=S008#reader-link excerpt and text search]
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| − | * Rankin, William. ''Introducing Newton'' (3rd ed. 2007) [http://www.amazon.com/Introducing-Newton-Introducing-William-Rankin/dp/1840468424/ref=sr_1_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196345513&sr=1-2 excerpt and text search]
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| − | * Sepper, Dennis L. ''Newton's Optical Writings: A Guided Study.'' Rutgers U. Press, 1994. 224 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Newtons-Optical-Writings-Masterworks-Discovery/dp/081352038X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196337057&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
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| − | * Shapiro, Alan E. ''Fits, Passions, and Paroxysms: Physics, Method, and Chemistry and Newton's Theories of Colored Bodies and Fits of Easy Reflection.'' Cambridge U. Press, (1993). 400 pp.
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| − | * Thrower, Norman J. W., ed. ''Standing on the Shoulders of Giants: A Longer View of Newton and Halley: Essays Commemorating the Tercentenary of Newton's Principia and the 1985-1986 Return of Comet Halley.'' U. of California Press, 1990. 429 pp.
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| − | * Westfall, Richard S. ''Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton.'' 2 vol. Cambridge U. Press, 1981. 895 pp. the major scholarly biography [http://www.amazon.com/Never-Rest-Biography-Cambridge-Paperback/dp/0521274354/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196337354&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]
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| − | ** Westfall, Richard S. ''The Life of Isaac Newton.'' Cambridge U. Press, (1993). 328 pp., short version [http://www.amazon.com/Life-Isaac-Newton-Canto-original/dp/0521477379/ref=sip_rech_dp_10 excerpt and text search]
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| − | * Westfall, Richard S. "Newton, Sir Isaac (1642–1727)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (2004); online edition
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| − | * White, Michael. ''Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer.'' (1998). 416 pp. Newton as alchemist [http://www.questia.com/read/9931462 online edition]
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| | + | John Conduitt, the husband of Newton's niece had this to say about Newton's theology. |
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| − | ===Primary sources===
| + | "I had no hesitation when writing the Like of Sir Isaac Newton in 1830, in coming to the conclusions that he was a believer in the Trinity; and in giving this opinion on the creed of so great a man, and so indefatigable a student of scripture, I was well aware that there are various forms of Trinitarian truth, and various modes of expressing it, which have been received as orthodox in the purest societies of the Christian Church."<ref>Thomas C. Pfizenmaier - Was Isaac Newton an Arian?. http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0022-5037(199701)58%3A1%3C57%3AWINAA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O</ref> |
| − | * Newton, Isaac. ''The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.'' U. of California Press, (1999). 974 pp.
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| − | * Newton, Isaac. ''The Optical Papers of Isaac Newton. Vol. 1: The Optical Lectures, 1670-1672.'' Cambridge U. Press, 1984. 627 pp.
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| − | * Newton, Isaac. ''Opticks'' (4th ed. 1730) [http://books.google.com/books?id=GnAFAAAAQAAJ&dq=newton+opticks&pg=PP1&ots=Nnl345oqo_&sig=0mBTaXUI_K6w-JDEu_RvVq5TNqc&prev=http://www.google.com/search%3Fq%3Dnewton%2Bopticks%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:en-us:IE-SearchBox%26ie%3DUTF-8%26oe%3DUTF-8%26sourceid%3Die7%26rlz%3D1I7GGLJ&sa=X&oi=print&ct=title&cad=one-book-with-thumbnail online edition]
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| − | * Newton, Isaac. ''The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton,'' 8 vols. (Cambridge University Press, 1967–81).
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| − | * Newton, Isaac. ''The correspondence of Isaac Newton,'' ed. H. W. Turnbull and others, 7 vols. (1959–77) ·
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| − | * Brackenridge, J. Bruce. ''The Key to Newton's Dynamics: The Kepler Problem and the Principia: Containing an English Translation of Sections 1, 2, and 3 of Book One from the First (1687) Edition of Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.'' U. of California Press, 1996. 299 pp.
| + | In an effort to debunk widespread claims of his time that the world would be ending soon, Newton wrote a private manuscript estimating that the world would not end prior to the year A.D. 2060.<ref>http://www.isaac-newton.org/newton_2060.htm</ref> |
| − | * ''Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from His Writings'' edited by H. S. Thayer, (1953), [http://www.questia.com/read/5876270 online edition]
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| − | ====Notes==== | + | ==Reference== |
| | <references/> | | <references/> |
| − | | + | ==Bibliography== |
| | * Westfall, Richard S. ''Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton'' (1983), 928pp [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521274354/ref=sib_dp_pt#reader-link excerpt and text search], the standard scholarly biography | | * Westfall, Richard S. ''Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton'' (1983), 928pp [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521274354/ref=sib_dp_pt#reader-link excerpt and text search], the standard scholarly biography |
| | ** Westfall, Richard S. ''The Life of Isaac Newton'' (1994), 350pp; abridged version [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521477379/ref=sib_dp_pt#reader-link excerpt and text search] | | ** Westfall, Richard S. ''The Life of Isaac Newton'' (1994), 350pp; abridged version [http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/0521477379/ref=sib_dp_pt#reader-link excerpt and text search] |