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However oil became an alternative fuel after 1920 (as did natural gas after 1980). By the mid 20th century coal was for the most part replaced in domestic as well as industrial and transportation usage by oil, natural gas or electricity produced from oil, gas, nuclear or water power.
However oil became an alternative fuel after 1920 (as did natural gas after 1980). By the mid 20th century coal was for the most part replaced in domestic as well as industrial and transportation usage by oil, natural gas or electricity produced from oil, gas, nuclear or water power.
[[Image:Miners1911.jpg|thumb|550px|power drills (left) replaced hand picks (right about 1910, and greatly increased productivity]]
Since 1890 coal has also been a political and social issue. Coal miners' labor unions became powerful in many countries in the 20th century. Often, the miners were leaders of the left or Socialist movements (as in Britain, Germany, Poland, Japan, Canada and the U.S.) <ref> Geoff Eley, ''Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850-2000'' (2002); Frederic Meyers, ''European Coal Mining Unions: structure and function'' (1961) p. 86; Kazuo and Gordon (1997) p 48; Hajo Holborn, ''History of Modern Germany'' (1959) p. 521; David Frank, ''J. B. McLachlan: A Biography: The Story of a Legendary Labour Leader and the Cape Breton Coal Miners,'' (1999) p, 69; David Montgomery, ''The fall of the house of labor: the workplace, the state, and American labor activism, 1865-1925'' (1991) p 343.</ref> Since 1970, environmental issues have been paramount, including the health of miners, destruction of the landscape from strip mines and mountaintop removal mining, air pollution, and contribution to global warming.
Since 1890 coal has also been a political and social issue. Coal miners' labor unions became powerful in many countries in the 20th century. Often, the miners were leaders of the left or Socialist movements (as in Britain, Germany, Poland, Japan, Canada and the U.S.) <ref> Geoff Eley, ''Forging Democracy: The History of the Left in Europe, 1850-2000'' (2002); Frederic Meyers, ''European Coal Mining Unions: structure and function'' (1961) p. 86; Kazuo and Gordon (1997) p 48; Hajo Holborn, ''History of Modern Germany'' (1959) p. 521; David Frank, ''J. B. McLachlan: A Biography: The Story of a Legendary Labour Leader and the Cape Breton Coal Miners,'' (1999) p, 69; David Montgomery, ''The fall of the house of labor: the workplace, the state, and American labor activism, 1865-1925'' (1991) p 343.</ref> Since 1970, environmental issues have been paramount, including the health of miners, destruction of the landscape from strip mines and mountaintop removal mining, air pollution, and contribution to global warming.
* Conley, Phil. ''History of West Virginia Coal Industry'' (Charleston: Education Foundation, 1960)
* Conley, Phil. ''History of West Virginia Coal Industry'' (Charleston: Education Foundation, 1960)
* Dublin, Thomas and Walter Licht. ''The Face of Decline: The Pennsylvania Anthracite Region in the Twentieth Century'' (2005)
* Dublin, Thomas and Walter Licht. ''The Face of Decline: The Pennsylvania Anthracite Region in the Twentieth Century'' (2005)
* Eavenson, Howard. ''The First Century and a Quarter of the American Coal Industry'' 1942.
* Eavenson, Howard. ''The First Century and a Quarter of the American Coal Industry'' (1942).
* Flores, Verla R. and A. Dudley Gardner. ''Forgotten Frontier: A History of Wyoming Coal Mining'' (1989) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=85688689 online edition]
* Flores, Verla R. and A. Dudley Gardner. ''Forgotten Frontier: A History of Wyoming Coal Mining'' (1989) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=85688689 online edition]
* Lauver, Fred J. "A Walk Through the Rise and Fall of Anthracite Might," ''Pennsylvania Heritage Magazine'' 27#1 (2001) [http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/ppet/miningmuseum/page1.asp?secid=31 online edition]
* Lauver, Fred J. "A Walk Through the Rise and Fall of Anthracite Might," ''Pennsylvania Heritage Magazine'' 27#1 (2001) [http://www.phmc.state.pa.us/ppet/miningmuseum/page1.asp?secid=31 online edition]
* Netschert, Bruce C. and Sam H. Schurr, ''Energy in the American Economy, 1850-1975: An Economic Study of Its History and Prospects.'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=9239758 (1960) online]
* Netschert, Bruce C. and Sam H. Schurr, ''Energy in the American Economy, 1850-1975: An Economic Study of Its History and Prospects.'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=9239758 (1960) online]
* Parker, Glen Lawhon. ''The Coal Industry: A Study in Social Control'' (1940)
* Parker, Glen Lawhon. ''The Coal Industry: A Study in Social Control'' (1940)
* Powell, H. Benjamin. ''Philadelphia's First Fuel Crisis. Jacob Cist and the Developing Market for Pennsylvania Anthracite''. The Pennsylvania State University Press, 1978.
* Powell, H. Benjamin. ''Philadelphia's First Fuel Crisis. Jacob Cist and the Developing Market for Pennsylvania Anthracite''. (1978).
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104256174 Dan Rottenberg, ''In the Kingdom of Coal: An American Family and the Rock That Changed the World'' (2003)], owners' perspective
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104256174 Dan Rottenberg, ''In the Kingdom of Coal: An American Family and the Rock That Changed the World'' (2003)], owners' perspective
* Schurr, Sam H. and Bruce C. Netschert. ''Energy in the American Economy, 1850-1975: An Economic Study of Its History and Prospects.'' Johns Hopkins Press, 1960.
* Schurr, Sam H. and Bruce C. Netschert. ''Energy in the American Economy, 1850-1975: An Economic Study of Its History and Prospects.'' (1960).
* United States Anthracite Coal Strike Commission, 1902-1903, ''Report to the President on the Anthracite Coal Strike of May-October, 1902 By United States Anthracite Coal Strike'' (1903) [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC65212138&id=3t0JAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA7&lpg=RA2-PA7&dq=Report+to+the+President+on+the+Anthracite+Coal+Strike online edition]
* United States Anthracite Coal Strike Commission, 1902-1903, ''Report to the President on the Anthracite Coal Strike of May-October, 1902 By United States Anthracite Coal Strike'' (1903) [http://books.google.com/books?vid=OCLC65212138&id=3t0JAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA2-PA7&lpg=RA2-PA7&dq=Report+to+the+President+on+the+Anthracite+Coal+Strike online edition]
* Vietor, Richard H. K. and Martin V. Melosi; ''Environmental Politics and the Coal Coalition'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3560720 Texas A&M University Press, 1980 online]
* Vietor, Richard H. K. and Martin V. Melosi; ''Environmental Politics and the Coal Coalition'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=3560720 1980 online]
* Warren, Kenneth. ''Triumphant Capitalism: Henry Clay Frick and the Industrial Transformation of America''. U. of Pittsburgh Press, 1996.
* Warren, Kenneth. ''Triumphant Capitalism: Henry Clay Frick and the Industrial Transformation of America''. U. of Pittsburgh Press, 1996.
[[Image:Coaltrain.jpg|thumb|350px|today very long coal trains haul the fuel to electric generating plants]]
====Coal miners and unions====
====Coal miners and unions====
* Aurand, Harold W. ''Coalcracker Culture: Work and Values in Pennsylvania Anthracite, 1835-1935'' 2003
* Aurand, Harold W. ''Coalcracker Culture: Work and Values in Pennsylvania Anthracite, 1835-1935'' 2003
* Baratz, Morton S. ''The Union and the Coal Industry'' (Yale University Press, 1955)
* Baratz, Morton S. ''The Union and the Coal Industry'' (1955)
* Blatz, Perry. ''Democratic Miners: Work and Labor Relations in the Anthracite Coal Industry, 1875-1925''. SUNY Press, 1994.
* Blatz, Perry. ''Democratic Miners: Work and Labor Relations in the Anthracite Coal Industry, 1875-1925''. (1994).
* Corbin, David Alan. ''Life, Work, and Rebellion in the Coal Fields: The Southern West Virginia Miners, 1880-1922'' (1981)
* Corbin, David Alan. ''Life, Work, and Rebellion in the Coal Fields: The Southern West Virginia Miners, 1880-1922'' (1981)
* Keith Dix, ''What's a Coal Miner to Do? The Mechanization of Coal Mining'' (1988), changes in the coal industry prior to 1940
* Keith Dix, ''What's a Coal Miner to Do? The Mechanization of Coal Mining'' (1988), changes in the coal industry prior to 1940
* Price V. Fishback. ''Soft Coal, Hard Choices: The Economic Welfare of Bituminous Coal Miners, 1890-1930'' (1992) [[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=65250169 online edition]
* Price V. Fishback. ''Soft Coal, Hard Choices: The Economic Welfare of Bituminous Coal Miners, 1890-1930'' (1992) [[http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=65250169 online edition]
*[http://www.dol.gov/asp/programs/history/coalstrike.htm Jonathan Grossman "The Coal Strike of 1902 – Turning Point in U.S. Policy" ''Monthly Labor Review'' October 1975. online]
*[http://www.dol.gov/asp/programs/history/coalstrike.htm Jonathan Grossman "The Coal Strike of 1902 – Turning Point in U.S. Policy" ''Monthly Labor Review'' October 1975. online]
* Katherine Harvey, ''The Best Dressed Miners: Life and Labor in the Maryland Coal Region, 1835-1910''. Cornell University Press, 1993.
* Katherine Harvey, ''The Best Dressed Miners: Life and Labor in the Maryland Coal Region, 1835-1910''. (1993).
* A. F. Hinrichs; ''The United Mine Workers of America, and the Non-Union Coal Fields'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=914999 Columbia University, 1923 online]
* A. F. Hinrichs; ''The United Mine Workers of America, and the Non-Union Coal Fields'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=914999 Columbia University, 1923 online]
* Herman R. Lantz; ''People of Coal Town'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=9494437 Columbia University Press, 1958; on southern Illinois; online]
* Herman R. Lantz; ''People of Coal Town'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=9494437 Columbia University Press, 1958; on southern Illinois; online]
* John H.M. Laslett, ed. ''The United Mine Workers: A Model of Industrial Solidarity?'' Penn State University Press, 1996.
* John H.M. Laslett, ed. ''The United Mine Workers: A Model of Industrial Solidarity?'' (1996).
* Ronald L. Lewis. ''Black Coal Miners in America: Race, Class, and Community Conflict''. University Press of Kentucky, 1987.
* Ronald L. Lewis. ''Black Coal Miners in America: Race, Class, and Community Conflict''. (1987).
* Richard D. Lunt, ''Law and Order vs. the Miners: West Virginia, 1907-1933'' Archon Books, 1979, On labor conflicts of the early twentieth century.
* Richard D. Lunt, ''Law and Order vs. the Miners: West Virginia, 1907-1933'' Archon Books, 1979, On labor conflicts of the early twentieth century.
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=1116075 Edward A. Lynch and David J. McDonald. ''Coal and Unionism: A History of the American Coal Miners' Unions'' (1939)]
* [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=1116075 Edward A. Lynch and David J. McDonald. ''Coal and Unionism: A History of the American Coal Miners' Unions'' (1939)]
* U.S. Immigration Commission, ''Report on Immigrants in Industries, Part I: Bituminous Coal Mining'', 2 vols. Senate Document no. 633, 61st Cong., 2nd sess. (1911)
* U.S. Immigration Commission, ''Report on Immigrants in Industries, Part I: Bituminous Coal Mining'', 2 vols. Senate Document no. 633, 61st Cong., 2nd sess. (1911)
* Anthony F.C. Wallace, ''St. Clair. A Nineteenth-Century Coal Town's Experience with a Disaster-Prone Industry''. Knopf, 1981.
* Anthony F.C. Wallace, ''St. Clair. A Nineteenth-Century Coal Town's Experience with a Disaster-Prone Industry''. Knopf, 1981.
* Robert D. Ward and William W. Rogers, ''Labor Revolt in Alabama: The Great Strike of 1894'' University of Alabama Press, 1965 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=13798804 online edition] coal strike
* Robert D. Ward and William W. Rogers, ''Labor Revolt in Alabama: The Great Strike of 1894'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=13798804 online edition] coal strike
===World===
===World===