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Around 800 B.C., the Greeks formed their alphabet by borrowing from the Phoenician alphabet and adding vowels to it, and this sparked the progress and learning that we remember ancient Greece for.  The spread of this new alphabet provides written records pf Greek society, culture, and life which survive today.  Greece divided itself into many small self-governing communities because of Greek geography, which made travel and communication between areas difficult.  In Greece, every region is separated from its neighbors by water or mountain ranges.  Once again we see how geography shaped history: the terrain of ancient Greece led the people to create city-states.  (Earlier we saw how the geography of Egypt supported the rise and power of that civilization and prevented its boundaries from changing, even when it was conquered.)

Around 800 B.C., the Greeks formed their alphabet by borrowing from the Phoenician alphabet and adding vowels to it, and this sparked the progress and learning that we remember ancient Greece for.  The spread of this new alphabet provides written records pf Greek society, culture, and life which survive today.  Greece divided itself into many small self-governing communities because of Greek geography, which made travel and communication between areas difficult.  In Greece, every region is separated from its neighbors by water or mountain ranges.  Once again we see how geography shaped history: the terrain of ancient Greece led the people to create city-states.  (Earlier we saw how the geography of Egypt supported the rise and power of that civilization and prevented its boundaries from changing, even when it was conquered.)

Magnificent Greek literature began to appear almost as soon as the Phoenician alphabet became the standard.  Homer wrote the Iliad and the Odyssey in the 800s or 700s B.C., and they remain great works of literature to this day.  They describe adventures arising from the mythical "Trojan War" caused by the Greek gods, which included the famous gift of a "Trojan horse" to fool the enemy.  In our internet era, a "Trojan horse" is a program or download that looks helpful, but actually contains a harmful computer virus.  Greek mythology remains a powerful influence to this day, as the names for gods have inspired many common terms today, such as "Achilles heel," "Amazon", "atlas" and "titans".  Some would say that modern sports heroes, music stars, and media figures are appealing to the public in the same way as Greek mythological gods were so popular nearly 3000 years ago.

Magnificent Greek literature began to appear almost as soon as the Phoenician alphabet became the standard.  Homer wrote the ''Iliad'' and the ''Odyssey'' in the 800s or 700s B.C., and they remain great works of literature to this day.  They describe adventures arising from the mythical "Trojan War" caused by the Greek gods, which included the famous gift of a "Trojan horse" to fool the enemy.  In our internet era, a "Trojan horse" is a program or download that looks helpful, but actually contains a harmful computer virus.  Greek mythology remains a powerful influence to this day, as the names for gods have inspired many common terms today, such as "Achilles heel," "Amazon", "atlas" and "titans".  Some would say that modern sports heroes, music stars, and media figures are appealing to the public in the same way as Greek mythological gods were so popular nearly 3000 years ago.

Poetry and fables developed.  Aesop's Fables were written in the 600s B.C., containing popular insights repeated to this day.  For example, the term "sour grapes" applies to someone who complains after he loses, based on Aesop's fable about the fox unable to reach grapes.  Aesop was smart enough to know that foxes are the only canines that like grapes.  All the Fables are now available for easy access online.<ref>http://aesopfables.com/</ref>

Poetry and fables developed.  Aesop's Fables were written in the 600s B.C., containing popular insights repeated to this day.  For example, the term "sour grapes" applies to someone who complains after he loses, based on Aesop's fable about the fox unable to reach grapes.  Aesop was smart enough to know that foxes are the only canines that like grapes.  All the Fables are now available for easy access online.<ref>http://aesopfables.com/</ref>

The government of Athens in this early period was controlled by aristocrats who owned land.  They elected "archons", who were the government officials who made the law.  But in the 600s B.C., tyrants rose to power.  The tyrants were primarily rich upstarts who illegally took over the government by violent means and catered to the lower classes to maintain popularity.   

The government of Athens in this early period was controlled by aristocrats who owned land.  They elected "archons", who were the government officials who made the law.  But in the 600s B.C., tyrants rose to power.  The tyrants were primarily rich upstarts who illegally took over the government by violent means and catered to the lower classes to maintain popularity.   

Athens was then ruled by a series of tyrants.  One tyrant was "Draco", who wrote strict laws that had the same penalty for every crime, not matter how minor:  the penalty of death.  The negative term "draconian laws" is used to today to criticize overly rigid rules.  But Draco was not all bad:  he granted voting rights only to people who would bear arms in self-defense.<ref>http://www.stoa.org/projects/demos/article_democracy_development?page=3&greekEncoding=UnicodeC</ref>  Other tyrants included Pisistratus (transferred estates from the nobles to the peasants and started building projects to create jobs) and Cleistenes (created the democratic Council of 500 and promoted freedom of speech).  Cleisthenes is also believed to have founded "ostracism", a system by which any citizen believed to have too much power by other citizens could be voted into exile for ten years, or "ostracized".   

Athens was then ruled by a series of tyrants.  One tyrant was "Draco", who wrote strict laws that had the same penalty of death for every crime, no matter how minor.  The negative term "draconian laws" is used to today to criticize overly rigid rules.  But Draco was not all bad:  he granted voting rights only to people who would bear arms in self-defense.<ref>http://www.stoa.org/projects/demos/article_democracy_development?page=3&greekEncoding=UnicodeC</ref>  Other tyrants included Pisistratus (transferred estates from the nobles to the peasants and started building projects to create jobs) and Cleistenes (created the democratic Council of 500 and promoted freedom of speech).  Cleisthenes is also believed to have founded "ostracism", a system by which any citizen believed to have too much power by other citizens could be voted into exile for ten years, or "ostracized".   

In 594 B.C. the Athenians selected Solon to revise their laws.  He was a reformer who allowed most "citizens" (males descended from citizens) to vote.  This was the beginning of a real democracy.

In 594 B.C. the Athenians selected Solon to revise their laws.  He was a reformer who allowed most "citizens" (males descended from citizens) to vote.  This was the beginning of a real democracy.

Ultimately the Pisistratids lost power, and the world's first democracy was established in 500 B.C.  The powerful body became an assembly open to all (male) citizens.

Ultimately the Pisistratids lost power, and the world's first democracy was established in 500 B.C.  The powerful body became an assembly open to all (male) citizens.

The city-states were remarkable because they adopted a form of democracy that inspired our Constitution:  citizens elected representatives who would then make decisions for everyone.  But there was only a legislature in Athens, rather than the separation of powers that is unique to our Constitution.  Also, not all Greek males in Athens were citizens.  The city-state of Athens had 225,000 residents at its peak, but only 30% of the males were citizens.  Males born to families with large incomes became citizens.  Still, Athens is considered to have invented "democracy", and its residents felt an allegiance to the state because of this.  (The United States did ''not'' invent democracy, and does not have a direct democracy as Athens did; instead, the United States elects representatives who make decisions for the citizens.)

The city-states were remarkable because they adopted a form of democracy that inspired our Constitution:  citizens elected representatives who would then make decisions for everyone.  But there was only a legislature in Athens, rather than the separation of powers that is unique to our Constitution.  Also, not all Greek males in Athens were citizens.  The city-state of Athens had 225,000 residents at its peak, but only 30% of the males were citizens.  Males born to families with large incomes became citizens.  Still, Athens is considered to have invented "democracy", and its residents felt an allegiance to the State because of this.  (The United States did ''not'' invent democracy, and does not have a direct democracy as Athens did; instead, the United States elects representatives who make decisions for the citizens.)

Athens had a direct democracy:  every citizen (Athenian adult males) could propose laws and participate in their consideration and approval.  Nobles served as judges to interpret the law, but there was a right to appeal and citizens served as jurors for trials in court.

Athens had a direct democracy:  every citizen (Athenian adult males) could propose laws and participate in their consideration and approval.  Nobles served as judges to interpret the law, but there was a right to appeal and citizens served as jurors for trials in court.

The helots did the farming and were 4/5ths of the overall population.  The Spartans were not the brightest people in the world:  they forbade the use of gold and silver for money, and instead used heavy iron bars as money!  For most Greek city-states, trade consisted of making olive oil and wine and exchanging it with surrounding regions to obtain timber and grain in return.

The helots did the farming and were 4/5ths of the overall population.  The Spartans were not the brightest people in the world:  they forbade the use of gold and silver for money, and instead used heavy iron bars as money!  For most Greek city-states, trade consisted of making olive oil and wine and exchanging it with surrounding regions to obtain timber and grain in return.

=== Persia and the Persian Wars (500-479 B.C.) ===

=== The Persian Empire versus Athens, and the Persian Wars (500-479 B.C.) ===

Nothing unites two rivals as well as a common enemy.  In the 400s B.C. Athens and Sparta had a common enemy:  the Persian empire, located where Iran is today.

Nothing unites two rivals as well as a common enemy.  From 500 to 450 B.C. Athens and Sparta had a common enemy:  the Persian empire, located where Iran is today.

In 530 B.C., the Persian empire formed under a powerful ruler named Cyrus, who established the Achaemenid dynasty.  He conquered the Medes and established trade routes to India and the Mediterranean.  In 525 B.C., Cyrus's son Cambyses expanded the empire further to Egypt and parts of Arabia.  He established loyal governors in distant lands known as "satraps", who were carefully watched by a special force called the "King's Eyes and Ears" to prevent any rebellions.  The distant lands sent taxes and soldiers to the king; in return the king protected them and allowed local customs and traditions to continue (most other empires harshly suppressed local customs).  The Persian empire founded their own religion called Zoroastrainaism, which described life as a struggle between good and evil in the expectation that good would ultimately prevail.  Its sacred text was called "Avesta".

In 530 B.C., the Persian empire formed under a powerful ruler named Cyrus, who established the Achaemenid dynasty.  He conquered the Medes and established trade routes to India and the Mediterranean.  In 525 B.C., Cyrus's son Cambyses expanded the empire further to Egypt and parts of Arabia.  He established loyal governors in distant lands known as "satraps", who were carefully watched by a special force called the "King's Eyes and Ears" to prevent any rebellions.  The distant lands sent taxes and soldiers to the king; in return the king protected them and allowed local customs and traditions to continue (most other empires harshly suppressed local customs).  The Persian empire founded their own religion called Zoroastrainaism, which described life as a struggle between good and evil in the expectation that good would ultimately prevail.  Its sacred text was called "Avesta".

The greatest Persian ruler was Darius I, who was in power for nearly 40 years (521-486 B.C.).  He expanded his empire to the coast of North Africa and Macedonia, and established a capital at Persepolis.  He introduced a currency (coins) for trade, imposed a common calendar, and built the 1,600 mile Royal Road across the Middle East.  Mail was carried by couriers on the Royal Road, and it was a Greek historian (not the U.S. Postal Service) who described the couriers like this:  "Neither snow nor rain nor heat nor gloom of night stop these couriers from the swift completion of their appointed rounds."

The greatest Persian ruler was Darius I, who was in power for nearly 40 years (521-486 B.C.).  He expanded his empire to the coast of North Africa and Macedonia, and established a capital at Persepolis.  He introduced a currency (coins) for trade, imposed a common calendar, and built the 1,600 mile Royal Road across the Middle East.  Mail was carried by couriers on the Royal Road, and it was a Greek historian (not the U.S. Postal Service) who described the couriers like this:  "Neither snow nor rain nor heat nor gloom of night stop these couriers from the swift completion of their appointed rounds."

Persian King Cyrus conquered the Ionian Greek city-states on the western shore of Asia Minor in 546 B.C., but in 499 B.C. Athens encouraged support for a revolution against the Persian empire, coming to the aid of the Ionian city-states when they revolted against their Persian masters.  Other Greek city-states also helped the Ionian city-states.  

The Persian King Cyrus conquered the Ionian Greek city-states on the western shore of Asia Minor in 546 B.C., but in 499 B.C. Athens encouraged support for a revolution against the Persian empire.  Athens came to the aid of the Ionian city-states when they revolted against their Persian masters.  Other Greek city-states also helped the Ionian city-states.  

Furious, Darius suppressed the revolution and then sought to punish Athens in particular.  In 490 B.C., Darius brought his army to the plains of Marathon, just north of Athens and prepared to invade the rich city-state.  Outnumbered ten to one by the Persians, the Athenians sent an athlete named Philippides to run 150 miles to Sparta in an attempt to enlist the aid of the Spartans.  Ironically, the Spartans — with their military-obsessed society — refused to come, as they were in the middle of a festival!  However, Athens proved strong enough to defeat the mighty Persians on her own and won a staggering victory on the plains of Marathon.  To this day, runners participate in the long "marathon" run in imitation of the remarkable athlete Philippides.

Furious, Darius suppressed the revolution and then sought to punish Athens in particular.  In 490 B.C., Darius brought his army to the plains of Marathon, just north of Athens and prepared to invade the rich city-state.  Outnumbered ten to one by the Persians, the Athenians sent an athlete named Philippides to run 150 miles to Sparta in an attempt to enlist the aid of the Spartans.  Ironically, the Spartans — with their military-obsessed society — refused to come, as they were in the middle of a festival!  However, Athens proved strong enough to defeat the mighty Persians on her own and won a staggering victory on the plains of Marathon.  To this day, runners participate in the long "marathon" run in imitation of the remarkable athlete Philippides.

=== The Celts ===

=== The Celts ===

The Celts were the first ethnic group to become widespread in Europe.  Using tribes rather than stable civilizations, the Celts began in central Europe and migrated west beginning in about 500 B.C. to the British Isles (especially Ireland) and also to northwest France and portions of Spain.  Their religion consisted of worshiping gods and goddesses, and their priests were called "druids".  They had no written language but often told myths and folktales.  The Boston Celtics basketball team is named after the Celts.  It was not converted to Christianity until the Italian "Saint Patrick" was a successful missionary there in the mid-400s A.D.

The Celts (pronounced "kelts") were the first ethnic group to become widespread in Europe.  Using tribes rather than stable civilizations, the Celts began in central Europe and migrated west beginning in about 500 B.C. to the British Isles (especially Ireland) and also to northwest France and portions of Spain.  Their religion consisted of worshiping gods and goddesses, and their priests were called "druids".  They had no written language but often told myths and folktales.  The Boston Celtics basketball team is named after the Celts.  It was not converted to Christianity until the Italian "Saint Patrick" was a successful missionary there in the mid-400s A.D.

=== Central and South America ===

=== Central and South America ===

In about 2000 B.C., Mesoamerica (which means "middle America") consisted of primitive societies in what is called the Archaic period.  Mesoamerica was the region of Central America today, but including present-day Mexico.

In about 2000 B.C., Mesoamerica (which means "middle America") consisted of primitive societies in what is called the Archaic period.  Mesoamerica was the region of Central America today, but including present-day Mexico.

Beginning about 1200 B.C. a civilization developed known as the Olmec ("mother civilization").  By then maize (corn) was a plentiful crop, and it was grown along the fertile rivers.  Massive stone-hewn sculptures of warriors with helmets can be found in the tropical forests off the Gulf of Mexico in eastern Mexico, San Lorenzo and La Venta.  Th civilization lasted until 100 B.C.  It used a numerical system having base 20 and a 365-day calendar that included 260 days of religious ritual.  Religious ceremonies were prominent in this culture.

Beginning about 1200 B.C. a civilization developed known as the Olmec ("mother civilization").  By then maize (corn) was a plentiful crop, and it was grown along the fertile rivers.  Massive stone-hewn sculptures of warriors with helmets can be found in the tropical forests off the Gulf of Mexico in eastern Mexico, San Lorenzo and La Venta.  This civilization lasted until 100 B.C.  It used a numerical system having base 20 and a 365-day calendar that included 260 days of religious ritual.  Religious ceremonies were prominent in this culture.

In South America, Peru was home to agriculture-based civilizations on the altiplano (highlands) of the [[Andes]] mountains, and also in coastal valleys.  They had irrigation systems and built roads and bridges.  They used the llama (a relative of the camel) as a beast of burden and created pottery and textiles using cotton.  They lived in stone and adobe structures built perhaps between 3000 and 2000 B.C., and constructed large ceremonial centers beginning in 900 B.C., the most famous of which is called "Chavin de Huantar."

In South America, Peru was home to agriculture-based civilizations on the altiplano (highlands) of the [[Andes]] mountains, and also in coastal valleys.  They had irrigation systems and built roads and bridges.  They used the llama (a relative of the camel) as a beast of burden and created pottery and textiles using cotton.  They lived in stone and adobe structures built perhaps between 3000 and 2000 B.C., and constructed large ceremonial centers beginning in 900 B.C., the most famous of which is called "Chavin de Huantar."