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Vast amounts of semi-desert land known as the Gobi desert separate China from the Middle East and the area which was Mesopotamia in ancient times.  In the south of China, the Yangtze river flows for 3000 miles, navigable from the sea for half of its course.   

Vast amounts of semi-desert land known as the Gobi desert separate China from the Middle East and the area which was Mesopotamia in ancient times.  In the south of China, the Yangtze river flows for 3000 miles, navigable from the sea for half of its course.   

In the north is the Yellow river (now called the Huang He), which runs westward and then to the north from the Yellow Sea and gets its name from the murky tan color of its waters. (See if you can find the Yellow Sea and the Huang He on the modern map at the right.) The Yellow River is known for its tendency to flood surrounding lands with disastrous results.  The silt and sand carried in the muddy water builds up on the bottom of the river until it blocks the water's flow and causes the river to divert its course, flooding into another area.  Floods like these make the course of the Yellow River very changeable.

In the north is the Yellow river (now called the Huang He), which runs westward from the Yellow Sea and then northward a bit before turning south (look on the map just west of the city of Hohhot).  The Yellow river obtained its original name from the murky tan color of its waters.  The Yellow River is known for its tendency to flood surrounding lands, often with disastrous results.  The silt and sand carried in the muddy water builds up on the bottom of the river until it blocks the water's flow and causes the river to divert its course, flooding into another area.  Floods like these make the course of the Yellow River change often.

=== Ancient China ===

=== Ancient China ===

The earliest archaeological evidence in China is of the Shang dynasty, 1766-1122 B.C.  By folklore it began when the virtuous and wise man named T’ang overthrew the decadent emperor Chieh of the Hsia dynasty.  The Shang dynasty was ultimately overthrown and replaced by the Chou dynasty.

The earliest archaeological evidence in China is of the Shang dynasty, 1766-1122 B.C.  By folklore it began when the virtuous and wise man named T'ang overthrew the decadent emperor Chieh of the Hsia dynasty.  The Shang dynasty was ultimately overthrown and replaced by the Chou dynasty.

The Shang dynasty built cities in northern China, along the eastern banks of the Yellow River.  It did not control all of the land that belongs to China today.  Sometimes called the Yellow River civilization, the Shang dynasty benefited from bronze that Mesopotamia had introduced to China around 2000 B.C.  Bronze had been invented in Mesopotamia around 3000 B.C.

The Shang dynasty built cities in northern China, along the eastern banks of the Yellow River.  It did not control all of the land that belongs to China today.  Sometimes called the Yellow River civilization, the Shang dynasty benefited from bronze that Mesopotamia had introduced to China around 2000 B.C.  Bronze had been invented in Mesopotamia around 3000 B.C.

The Shang dynasty had writing in the form of oracle bones: questions and answers inscribed on actual bone.  The bones were quite common and created during the pagan oracles involved in ancient Chinese religion.  For archaeologists, these bones were the first concrete evidence that the Shang dynasty really had existed.  Before that, it was widely regarded as nothing more than a myth.  But if oracle bones were so common, why didn't archaeologists find them sooner?  Oracle bones were widely sold as "dragon bones" and believed to have magical healing properties.  Thus, oracle bones were generally ground up and used as medicine.  No one realized what the bones were until a high ranking official who was sick noticed that the bone which was to be ground for his medicine was covered in strange glyphs. His discovery proved the existence of the Shang dynasty.

The Shang dynasty had writing in the form of oracle bones: questions and answers inscribed on actual bone.  The bones were quite common and created during the pagan oracles involved in ancient Chinese religion.  For archaeologists, these bones were the first concrete evidence that the Shang dynasty really had existed.  Before that, it was widely regarded as nothing more than a myth.  But if oracle bones were so common, why didn't archaeologists find them sooner?  Oracle bones were widely sold as "dragon bones" and believed to have magical healing properties.  Thus, oracle bones were generally ground up and used as medicine.  No one realized what the bones were until a high ranking official who was sick noticed that the bone which was to be ground for his medicine was covered in strange glyphs! His discovery proved the existence of the Shang dynasty.

The Shang empire consisted of city-states, with much war between the various cities but particularly against the non-urbanized, agricultural populations in the rural areas.  The capital cities shifted as often as power changed hands.  The Shang dynasty perfected the wheel and used chariots in warfare.

The Shang empire consisted of city-states, with much war between the various cities but particularly against the non-urbanized, agricultural populations in the rural areas.  The capital cities shifted as often as power changed hands.  The Shang dynasty perfected the wheel and used chariots in warfare.

The Zhou or Chou dynasty replaced the Shang dynasty in 1027 B.C., and benefited from the Iron Age.  The Iron Age is the period of human history characterized the smelting of iron and its use in industry in western Asia and Egypt.  The Zhou dynasty lasted longer than any other one in Chinese history, ruling until 221 B.C. However, the dynasty ruled on the eastern part of China during the last few hundred years of its reign.  The multiplication table, which is essential to modern mathematics, was developed during this dynasty.

The Zhou or Chou dynasty replaced the Shang dynasty in 1027 B.C., and benefited from the Iron Age.  The Iron Age is the period of human history characterized the smelting of iron and its use in industry in western Asia and Egypt.  The Zhou dynasty lasted longer than any other one in Chinese history, ruling until 221 B.C. However, the dynasty ruled on the eastern part of China during the last few hundred years of its reign.  The multiplication table, which is essential to modern mathematics, was developed during this dynasty.

Early Chinese religion consisted of worshiping a supreme god called “Shang Ti,” or “Lord on High.” Shang Ti ruled over the lesser gods of the sun, moon, wind, rain and other aspects of nature.  The ancient Chinese people worshiped these gods with human sacrifices.  When a king died, for example, hundreds of slaves and prisoners would be sacrificed in his honor.  There were also sacrifices on a smaller scale when a temple or palace was constructed.

Early Chinese religion consisted of worshiping a supreme god called "Shang Ti," or "Lord on High." Shang Ti ruled over the lesser gods of the sun, moon, wind, rain and other aspects of nature.  The ancient Chinese people worshiped these gods with human sacrifices.  When a king died, for example, hundreds of slaves and prisoners would be sacrificed in his honor.  There were also sacrifices on a smaller scale when a temple or palace was constructed.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The text reflects insights shared by the ancient Chinese culture.  The last item above about seeing victory, for example, reflects an observation of another ancient Chinese sage named Ts'ao Kung, who remarked that the goal is to recognize a fruitful plant ''before'' it germinates. In order words, success depends on being able to anticipate the future.

=== Confucius ===

=== Confucius ===

The great figure in ancient China was Confucius, who lived from 551 to 478 B.C.  He lived around the same time as the early Greek philosophers, and taught social ethics to the people.  His real name was Kung Fu-tze, or Master Kung.  The name Confucius is simply a Latin translation of his real name.  His disciples wrote down his teachings in a book called the Analects, which focused on man’s duties to obey a universal natural law.  Moderation in conduct, or “li”, was emphasized, and filial piety (respecting the older members of one’s family) was the goal of the practices outlined in the Analects.  Age itself is greatly honored in Chinese culture, unlike Christianity:  the older a person was, the wiser he must be.  Confucius taught rulers to be just, and said those being ruled should be loyal to their rulers.

The great figure in ancient China was Confucius, who lived from 551 to 478 B.C.  He lived around the same time as the early Greek philosophers, and taught social ethics to the people.  His real name was Kung Fu-tze, or Master Kung.  The name Confucius is simply a Latin translation of his real name by Western historians.  Confucius's disciples wrote down his teachings in a book called the Analects, which focused on man's duties to obey a universal natural law.  Moderation in conduct, or "li", was emphasized, and filial piety (respecting the older members of one's family) was the goal of the practices outlined in the Analects.  Age itself is greatly honored in Chinese culture, unlike Christianity:  the older a person was, the wiser he must be.  Confucius taught rulers to be just, and said those being ruled should be loyal to their rulers.

Confucius wrote little himself, but his disciples recorded his teachings in the Analects.  This book had become a classic and has had enormous influence over Chinese history.  Confucius emphasized rational analysis with a touch of flexibility.  He disavowed any original insight or knowledge, and opposed anything egotistical.  He once said, “I for my part am not one of those who have innate knowledge.  I am simply one who loves the past and who is diligent in investigating it.”

Confucius wrote little himself, but his disciples recorded his teachings in the Analects.  This book had become a classic and has had enormous influence over Chinese history.  Confucius emphasized rational analysis with a touch of flexibility.  He disavowed any original insight or knowledge, and opposed anything egotistical.  He once said, "I for my part am not one of those who have innate knowledge.  I am simply one who loves the past and who is diligent in investigating it."

After Confucius died there was an era of the Warring States, from 481-221 B.C.  During that time several teachers emerged with their own interpretations of Confucian thought.  The two leading ones were Mencius (371-289 B.C.) and Hsun-tzu (298-230 B.C.).  Mencius felt that mankind was essential good and that philosophers like himself should run the country.  Hsun Tzu, in contrast, fell that man was intrinsically evil and that a wise and powerful ruler was necessary to maintain order.  Hsun Tzu's ideas became powerful, and laid the intellectual groundwork for the brutal Chinese dictatorships that followed the Warring States: the Chi’in or Qin state (221-206 B.C.).

After Confucius died there was an era of the Warring States, from 481-221 B.C.  During that time several teachers emerged with their own interpretations of Confucian thought.  The two leading ones were Mencius (371-289 B.C.) and Hsun-tzu (298-230 B.C.).  Mencius felt that mankind was essential good and that philosophers like himself should run the country.  Hsun Tzu, in contrast, fell that man was intrinsically evil and that a wise and powerful ruler was necessary to maintain order.  Hsun Tzu's ideas became powerful, and laid the intellectual groundwork for the brutal Chinese dictatorships that followed the Warring States: the Chi'in or Qin state (221-206 B.C.).

Ch’in was the first unified Chinese empire, and its king was Shih huang-ti.  It lasted until the Han dynasty rose to power in 206 B.C.  The Han dynasty then lasted 400 years until A.D. 220, and its name is still used to describe the ethnicity of 93% of Chinese today.

Ch'in was the first unified Chinese empire, and its king was Shih huang-ti.  It lasted until the Han dynasty rose to power in 206 B.C.  The Han dynasty then lasted 400 years until A.D. 220, and its name is still used to describe the ethnicity of 93% of Chinese today.

We will discuss these important dynasties below.  But first, let's examine the prevalent religious beliefs of ancient China.

We will discuss these important dynasties below.  But first, let's examine the prevalent religious beliefs of ancient China.

=== Taoism ===

=== Taoism ===

Taoism (also known as Daoism) eventually caught on in China and Southeast Asia (e.g., Vietnam) more than other religion, probably due to its great compatibility with the philosophical foundations laid by Confucius.  Taoism is significantly more philosophical than the world’s largest religions of Christianity, Islam and Hinduism.  The symbol for Taoism, for example, is the Taijitu or “Yin and Yang,” in which a curved half of a circle divides a shaded from a clear region to represent a constant interaction in nature between two forces having opposite qualities: [[Image:Yin yang.jpg]]

Taoism (also known as Daoism) eventually caught on in China and Southeast Asia (e.g., Vietnam) more than other religion, probably due to its compatibility with the philosophical foundations laid by Confucius.  Taoism is significantly more philosophical than the world's largest religions of Christianity, Islam and Hinduism.  The symbol for Taoism (see right) is the Taijitu or "Yin and Yang," in which a curved half of a circle divides a shaded from a clear region to represent a constant interaction in nature between two forces having opposite qualities: [[Image:Yin yang.jpg]]

The Yin (darker side) is passive or negative or feminine; the Yang (lighter side) is active or positive or masculine.  While western philosophy often views this dualism as a struggle, in China the goal is to harmonize these complementary forces.  Taoism and Confucianism strive to obtain harmony, though in Taoism the focus is on nature while in Confucianism the focus is on people.

The Yin (darker side) is passive or negative or feminine; the Yang (lighter side) is active or positive or masculine.  While western philosophy often views this dualism as a struggle, in China the goal is to harmonize these complementary forces.  Taoism and Confucianism strive to obtain harmony, though in Taoism the focus is on nature while in Confucianism the focus is on people.

   

   

The basic differences between Confucianism, Taoism and a third philosophy in China called “Legalism” were the following.  Confucianism emphasized education, tradition, reference for elders and ancestors, and a strong government.  Taiosm emphasized harmony with nature, and preferred the least amount of government.  Legalism, the forerunner to modern communist China, held that a strong government was essential to control the people.

The basic differences between Confucianism, Taoism and a third philosophy in China called "Legalism" were the following.  Confucianism emphasized education, tradition, reference for elders and ancestors, and a strong government.  Taoism emphasized harmony with nature, and preferred the least amount of government.  Legalism, the forerunner to modern communist China, held that a strong government was essential to control the people.

Buddhism, which was popular in India, emphasizes personal salvation more than the Taoism of China.  It makes little difference today in China, where the communist dictators impose atheism as the official religion (or lack of religion).  But in ancient China, before communism, these religions competed with each other for followers.  Taoism advanced at the expense of Confucianism, which lost ground until northern rulers reestablished the Mandate of Heaven, the theory that heaven blessed good rulers but overthrew bad ones, which was first used by the Zhou Dynasty to justify overthrowing the Shang Dynasty.  These northern rulers obtained control in A.D. 589 under the Sui and Tang Dynasties.

Buddhism, which was popular in India, emphasizes personal salvation more than the Taoism of China.  It makes little difference today in China, where the communist dictators impose atheism as the official religion (or lack of religion).  But in ancient China, before communism, these religions competed with each other for followers.  Taoism advanced at the expense of Confucianism, which lost followers until northern rulers reestablished the Mandate of Heaven.  The Mandate of Heaven was a theory that heaven blessed good rulers but overthrew bad ones, which was first used by the Zhou Dynasty to justify overthrowing the Shang Dynasty.  These northern rulers obtained control in A.D. 589 under the Sui and Tang Dynasties.

=== Imperial China ===

=== Imperial China ===