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| | ===England=== | | ===England=== |
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| − | The rise of a centralized government in England began with a series of Anglo-Saxon kings including Alfred the Great, Edward the Confessor and Harold. In 1066 William the Conqueror, a Norman duke, led an invasion of Britain against the Saxon King Harold. William the Conqueror prevailed over England and declared himself owner of all its land, granting fiefs to his Norman lords. The system of feudalism under William led to the rise of a centralized government, and the blend of the Norman and Saxon cultures would come to define the people of England. In 1166, William’s relative Henry II introduced trial by jury and took control of the court system in the “assize of Clarendon.” Royal judges traveled throughout the land, and their decisions establishing an English common law, which has greatly influenced law in the United States and continues to this day. William was married to Eleanor of Aquitaine, a remarkable woman who had two husbands and two sons who were kings. | + | The rise of a centralized government in England began with a series of Anglo-Saxon kings including Alfred the Great, Edward the Confessor and Harold. In 1066 William the Conqueror, a Norman duke, led an invasion of Britain against the Saxon King Harold. William the Conqueror prevailed over England and declared himself owner of all its land, granting fiefs to his Norman lords. The system of feudalism under William led to the rise of a centralized government, and the blend of the Norman and Saxon cultures would come to define the people of England. In 1166, William’s relative Henry II introduced trial by jury and took control of the court system in the “assize of Clarendon.” Royal judges traveled throughout the land, and their decisions established an English “common law,” which has greatly influenced law in the United States and continues to this day. William was married to Eleanor of Aquitaine, a remarkable woman who had two husbands and two sons who were kings. |
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| | Henry’s successor was his son, Richard “The Lionheart,” who fought in the Third Crusade. Richard’s successor was his brother John “Lackland”. History and myth surrounding these two men have been immortalized in legendary figures such as Robin Hood and Ivanhoe. Under John’s rule, Philip II of France seized Normandy, and the nobles of England objected to John’s extreme taxation to fund the war. They revolted in June 1215, and forced John to sign the “Magna Charta” (or “Magna Carta”), a “great charter” that diminished the king’s power and gave increased rights to the nobles. It granted the rights to trial by jury and equal protection under the law, and prohibited taxation without representation. The English parliament was also established at this time; the burgesses and knights of the middle class (which later became known as the “House of Commons”) were now allowed to participate in the legislative process along with bishops and lords (which became the “House of Lords”). These parliamentary bodies -- the House of Commons and the House of Lords -- govern Britain to this day. | | Henry’s successor was his son, Richard “The Lionheart,” who fought in the Third Crusade. Richard’s successor was his brother John “Lackland”. History and myth surrounding these two men have been immortalized in legendary figures such as Robin Hood and Ivanhoe. Under John’s rule, Philip II of France seized Normandy, and the nobles of England objected to John’s extreme taxation to fund the war. They revolted in June 1215, and forced John to sign the “Magna Charta” (or “Magna Carta”), a “great charter” that diminished the king’s power and gave increased rights to the nobles. It granted the rights to trial by jury and equal protection under the law, and prohibited taxation without representation. The English parliament was also established at this time; the burgesses and knights of the middle class (which later became known as the “House of Commons”) were now allowed to participate in the legislative process along with bishops and lords (which became the “House of Lords”). These parliamentary bodies -- the House of Commons and the House of Lords -- govern Britain to this day. |
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| | ===Another "Great Schism"=== | | ===Another "Great Schism"=== |
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| − | While nation-states were rising, particularly in England and France, and as kings were gaining more and more authority, controversy arose over who held supreme authority: the pope or the king. “The Great Schism” occurred in 1378-1417, which is not to be confused with the split between the West and East centuries earlier. This schism was an internal dispute within the Catholic Church resulting in French cardinals electing an “antipope” (Clement VII) in order to dispute the authority of recently elected Pope Urban VI. This and other controversies within the Catholic Church set the stage for the Protestant Reformation about 100 years later. | + | While nation-states were rising, particularly in England and France, and as kings were gaining more and more authority, controversy arose over who held supreme authority: the pope or the king. “The Great Schism” occurred in 1378-1417, which is not to be confused with the split between the West and East centuries earlier. This schism was an internal dispute within the Catholic Church resulting in French cardinals electing an “antipope” (Clement VII) in order to dispute the authority of the recently elected Pope Urban VI. This and other controversies within the Catholic Church set the stage for the Protestant Reformation about 100 years later. |
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| | ===Hundred Years' War=== | | ===Hundred Years' War=== |
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| | The Hundred Years’ War was fought between England and France, and lasted from 1337 to 1453. This war began when the last Capetian king died without leaving a successor, and English King Edward III seized the French throne. | | The Hundred Years’ War was fought between England and France, and lasted from 1337 to 1453. This war began when the last Capetian king died without leaving a successor, and English King Edward III seized the French throne. |
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| − | Joan of Arc, a girl who felt called by God to lead the French army, defeated the English at the siege at Orleans in 1430 at the age of seventeen, but was later captured by the English and burned at stake as a heretic in 1431. | + | Joan of Arc, a teenage girl who felt called by God to lead the French army, defeated the English at the siege at Orleans in 1430 at the age of seventeen, but was later captured by the English and burned at stake as a heretic in 1431. |
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| | ==The High Middle Ages== | | ==The High Middle Ages== |