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==Other Revolutions==

==Other Revolutions==

There were many revolutions in addition to the American and French Revolutions, as the world threw off the yoke of monarchs and replaced them with more representative governments.  The most successful of these was the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) in Latin America.  Revolutions in South America from 1810 to 1824 did bring independence from Spain, but failed to lead to prosperity in South America.  Mexico won its independence from Spain in a Mexican Revolution that lasted from 1810 to 1821.  A century later, from 1910 to 1919, the Mexican Revolution led to a constitution that advanced land reform, education and workers rights; historians also credit it for bringing some rights to women.

There were many revolutions in addition to the American and French Revolutions, as the world threw off the yoke of monarchs and replaced them with more representative governments.  The most successful of these was the Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) in Latin America.  Revolutions in South America from 1810 to 1824 did bring independence from Spain, but failed to lead to prosperity in South America.  Mexico won its independence from Spain in a Mexican Revolution that lasted from 1810 to 1821.  A century later, from 1910 to 1919, the Mexican Revolution led to a constitution that advanced land reform, education and workers’ rights; historians also credit it for bringing some rights to women.

===Haiti===

===Haiti===

The first Spanish colony in the New World was the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean, which was one of Christopher Columbus’s first discoveries.  Today Hispaniola has two countries separated by mountains:  its eastern two thirds is the Dominican Republic, while its western one-third is Haiti.  The Dominican Republic has produced many great baseball players today, including Albert Pujols, Sammy Sosa, Pedro Martinez, Jose Reyes and Manny Ramirez.

The first Spanish colony in the New World was the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean, which was one of Christopher Columbus’s first discoveries.  Today Hispaniola has two countries separated by mountains:  its eastern two-thirds is the Dominican Republic, while its western one-third is Haiti.  The Dominican Republic has produced many great baseball players, including Albert Pujols, Sammy Sosa, Pedro Martinez, Jose Reyes and Manny Ramirez.

In the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697, Spain ceded control of the western third of Hispaniola to France, which established a colony named Saint Dominique (also spelled as “Saint-Domingue”).  A hundred years later, this colony became famous for several reasons:  (1) it was the first independent black republic, (2) it was the only nation formed based on a successful slave revolt, and (3) it was the second colony after the United States to declare its independence in the New World, on Jan. 1, 1804.  Haiti also had a recent revolution or uprising, in 2004.

In the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697, Spain ceded control of the western third of Hispaniola to France, which established a colony named Saint Dominique (also spelled as “Saint-Domingue”).  A hundred years later, this colony (now Haiti) became famous for several reasons:  (1) it became the first independent black republic, (2) it was the only nation formed based on a successful slave revolt, and (3) it was the second colony after the United States to declare its independence in the New World, on Jan. 1, 1804.  In 2004, Haiti also had a revolution, or uprising.

The Haitian Revolution began when an African priest sparked an uprising by 100,000 slaves, led by Toussaint L’Ouverture in 1791.  French troops eventually arrived in 1802 to suppress the revolution, and tricked L’Ouverture into boarding a French ship where he thought he would be able to sign a peace treaty granting the colony independence from France.  Instead he was captured and returned to France, where he died in 1803 in a French prison (France has always had the worst prison conditions in Europe).  But Dessalines, a general under L’Ouverture, fought on for freedom on the island, and Haiti successfully declared its independence on Jan. 1, 1804.

The Haitian Revolution began when an African priest sparked an uprising by 100,000 slaves, led by Toussaint L’Ouverture in 1791.  French troops eventually arrived in 1802 to suppress the revolution, and tricked L’Ouverture into boarding a French ship where he thought he would be able to sign a peace treaty granting the colony independence from France.  Instead he was captured and returned to France, where he died in 1803 in a French prison (France has always had the worst prison conditions in Europe).  But Dessalines, a general under L’Ouverture, fought on for freedom on the island, and Haiti successfully declared its independence on Jan. 1, 1804.

===South America===

===South America===

In the Spanish colonies, creoles (pronounced KREE-oles, and meaning Europeans born in the colonies) were leading revolutions to gain independence from their Spanish rulers.  Creole Generals Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin led Venezuela, Ecuador, and Argentina to independence and with the help of Bernardo O’Higgins, Chile was also freed in 1818.  Bolivar freed the rest of the colonies at the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824, and attempted to establish the unified nations of “Gran Colombia” and “United Provinces of Central America”, but both collapsed after only a few years.  

In the Spanish colonies, creoles (pronounced KREE-oles, and people born in the colonies to European parents) were leading revolutions to gain independence from their Spanish rulers.  Creole Generals Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin led Venezuela, Ecuador, and Argentina to independence.  Bernardo O’Higgins led Chile to freedom in 1818 and is viewed as a hero to this day there.  Bolivar freed other colonies from Spanish rule at the Battle of Ayacucho in 1824, and attempted to establish the unified nations of “Gran Colombia” and “United Provinces of Central America”, but both collapsed after only a few years.  

Brazil won its independence in a peaceful manner.  It was a colony of Portugal, and when Napoleon invaded Spain and Portugal in 1807, the family of the Portuguese monarch fled to Brazil.  Prince John, the future King John VI, declared the large Brazilian capital of Rio de Janeiro to be the capital of both Brazil and Portugal.  In 1822, after the defeat of Napoleon and the return of King John VI to Portugal, the creoles (people of European descent born in the colonies) demanded independence for Brazil.  King John declared his son Dom Pedro as ruler of the newly independent Brazil.  Brazil was thereby the only Latin American country to be ruled by a king after it gained its independence.

Brazil won its independence in a peaceful manner.  It was a colony of Portugal, and when Napoleon invaded Spain and Portugal in 1807, the family of the Portuguese monarch fled to Brazil.  Prince John, the future King John VI, declared the large Brazilian capital of Rio de Janeiro to be the capital of both Brazil and Portugal.  In 1822, after the defeat of Napoleon and the return of King John VI to Portugal, the creoles (people of European descent born in the colonies) demanded independence for Brazil.  King John declared his son Dom Pedro as ruler of the newly independent Brazil.  Brazil was thereby the only Latin American country to be ruled by a king after it gained its independence.

In 1810 in Mexico, a war for independence was initiated by Catholic priest Father Miguel Hidalgo from Dolores, who rallied mestizos (people of mixed Indian and European blood) in a rebellion against Spain.  This revolt was memorable because it was the first time a rebellion was led in South America by the mestizos and not by the creoles.  Led by Hidalgo, the mestizos marched to Mexico City, but were defeated in 1811 by the Spanish and the creoles.  Hidalgo was executed in 1811 and then succeeded by Father José Maria Morelos, who also lost to the creoles, led by Augustin de Iturbide in 1815.  The struggle ended in 1821, when Mexico successfully gained independence from Spain.   

In 1810 in Mexico, a war for independence was initiated by Catholic priest Father Miguel Hidalgo from Dolores, who rallied mestizos (people having both Indian and European ancestors) in a rebellion against Spain.  This revolt was memorable because it was the first time a rebellion was led in South America by the mestizos and not by the creoles.  Led by Hidalgo, the mestizos marched to Mexico City, but were defeated in 1811 by the Spanish and the creoles.  Hidalgo was executed in 1811 and then succeeded by Father José Maria Morelos, who also lost to the creoles, led by Augustin de Iturbide in 1815.  The struggle ended in 1821, when Mexico successfully gained independence from Spain.   

An Indian governor named Benito Juarez enacted reforms including the redistribution of land to the poor and separation of church and state.  He was exiled by Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, who was the president of Mexico four times following the revolution against Spain.  During his rule, Santa Anna was unable to stop Texas from seceding from Mexico in 1845, an act which fueled the Mexican-U.S. War.  In 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought an end to the U.S.-Mexican War, giving the United States Southwest territories including California and New Mexico.  Benito Juarez again rose to power in 1861, and strongly opposed the French occupation of Mexico in 1862, and especially the Austrian archduke Maximilian.   

An Indian governor named Benito Juarez redistributed land to the poor and separated church and state.  He was exiled by Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, who was the president of Mexico four times following the revolution against Spain.  During his rule, Santa Anna was unable to stop Texas from seceding from Mexico in 1845, an act which fueled the war between Mexico and the United States.  In 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought an end to this Mexican War, granting the United States Southwest territories including California and New Mexico.  Benito Juarez again rose to power in 1861, and strongly opposed the French occupation of Mexico in 1862, and especially the Austrian archduke Maximilian.   

When the French left Mexico in 1867, Juarez was followed by dictator Porfirio Diaz, of Indian descent, who encouraged building projects and economic growth but unsuccessfully distributed land and failed to resolve problems among the working class such as low wages.  Diaz found opposition in Francisco Madero, who founded the “Anti-Reelection Party” and was a firm supporter of democracy.  Madero called for an uprising in 1910, marking the beginning of the Mexican Revolution, which lasted until 1917.  Other prominent figures of the Mexican Revolution included cowboy Francisco “Pancho” Villa, and peasant leader Emiliano Zapata.  Control of Mexico often changed hands and many were assassinated, including Madero, who was then replaced by Diaz’s ally General Victoriano Huerta, who then fled and was replaced by Venustiano Carranza.  Carranza met his downfall after tricking and killing Emiliano Zapata in 1919, which turned everyone against Carranza.  He attempted to flee Mexico, but was killed.  These events marked the end of the Mexican Revolution.   

When the French left Mexico in 1867, Juarez was followed by dictator Porfirio Diaz, of Indian descent, who encouraged building projects and economic growth but unsuccessfully distributed land and failed to resolve problems among the working class such as low wages.  Diaz found opposition in Francisco Madero, who founded the “Anti-Reelection Party” and was a firm supporter of democracy.  Madero called for an uprising in 1910, marking the beginning of the Mexican Revolution, which lasted until 1917.  Other prominent figures of the Mexican Revolution included cowboy Francisco “Pancho” Villa, and peasant leader Emiliano Zapata.  Control of Mexico often changed hands and many were assassinated, including Madero, who was then replaced by Diaz’s ally General Victoriano Huerta, who then fled and was replaced by Venustiano Carranza.  Carranza met his downfall after tricking and killing Emiliano Zapata in 1919, which turned everyone against Carranza.  He attempted to flee Mexico, but was killed.  These events marked the end of the Mexican Revolution.   

A Mexican constitution was established as a result of the Revolution, which increased the rights of workers and in some cases, women, and, strengthened the land redistribution system.  In 1920, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (in Spanish, the Partido Revolucionario Institucional or PRI) was organized.  It came to power in 1929 and was the most prominent party in Mexico for the next century.  The IRP gave politicians in Mexico City control, and many of the Mexican constitutional provisions were disregarded by PRI presidents.

A Mexican constitution was established as a result of the Revolution, which increased the rights of workers and in some cases the rights of women, and strengthened the land redistribution system.  In 1920, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (in Spanish, the Partido Revolucionario Institucional or PRI) was organized.  It came to power in 1929 and was the most prominent party in Mexico for the next century.  The IRP gave politicians in Mexico City control, and many of the Mexican constitutional provisions were disregarded by PRI presidents.

===China===

===China===