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Coolidge received the news that he was suddenly president, due to Harding's death, at 2:30 am on Aug. 3, 1923. By the light of a kerosene lamp, his father (a notary public) administered the oath of office while Coolidge placed his hand on the family Bible.

Coolidge received the news that he was suddenly president, due to Harding's death, at 2:30 am on Aug. 3, 1923. By the light of a kerosene lamp, his father (a notary public) administered the oath of office while Coolidge placed his hand on the family Bible.

Coolidge was a character who became famous for saying and doing nothing.  He rejected regulations to control the economic boom, and denied funding for farmers to help their depressed conditions.  His first message to Congress in late 1923 was to limit aid to farmers, withdraw the nation from foreign issues, and cut taxes.  His popularity increased and he won reelection with 54% of the vote, taking credit for "Coolidge prosperity."

Coolidge was a character who became known for saying and doing nothing.  He rejected regulations to control the economic boom, and denied funding for farmers to help their depressed conditions.  His first message to Congress in late 1923 was to limit aid to farmers, withdraw the nation from foreign conflicts, and cut taxes.  His popularity increased and he won reelection with 54% of the vote, taking credit for "Coolidge prosperity."

Coolidge became known for his laconic style of few words.  A young woman at a social event whispered to Coolidge's wife that the woman would start a conversation with Coolidge such that Coolidge would say at least three words.  Coolidge must have overheard the whisper, because he then said, "You lose."  In 1928, Coolidge lived up to his reputation by giving the following statement to an anxious public, "I do not choose to run for President in 1928."  That was it.  In the 1980s conservative President Ronald Reagan infuriated liberals by finding a portrait of Coolidge in the White House attic and prominently displaying it along with George Washington and other famous presidents.

Coolidge became known for his laconic style of few words.  A young woman at a social event whispered to Coolidge's wife that the woman would start a conversation with Coolidge such that Coolidge would say at least three words.  Coolidge must have overheard the whisper, because he then said, "You lose."  In 1928, Coolidge lived up to his reputation by giving the following statement to an anxious public, "I do not choose to run for President in 1928."  That was it.  In the 1980s conservative President Ronald Reagan infuriated liberals by finding a portrait of Coolidge in the White House attic and prominently displaying it along with George Washington and other famous presidents.

Patton was given the task of taking on the Germany's greatest field commander, Erwin Rommel ("The Desert Fox").  Rommel had completely destroyed the British in Northern Africa and Patton was sent there in 1942 with his tanks to see what he could do.

Patton was given the task of taking on the Germany's greatest field commander, Erwin Rommel ("The Desert Fox").  Rommel had completely destroyed the British in Northern Africa and Patton was sent there in 1942 with his tanks to see what he could do.

Patton, with his famous aggression, boldly went right at Rommel's famous army and completely decimated it.  Rommel had no choice but to flee back to Europe and allow Patton to free Northern Africa from German control.  From this "African campaign" Patton then went up to Italy in 1943, and liberated Sicily.  Historians describe Patton's efforts as "cutting through the German defenders like a hot knife through butter."<ref name="Patton">http://military-leaders.suite 101.com/article.cfm/us_general_george_patton</ref>

Patton, with his famous aggression, boldly went right at Rommel's army and completely decimated it.  Rommel had no choice but to flee back to Europe and allow Patton to free Northern Africa from German control.  From this "African campaign" Patton then went up to Italy in 1943, and liberated Sicily.  Historians describe Patton's efforts as "cutting through the German defenders like a hot knife through butter."<ref name="Patton">http://military-leaders.suite 101.com/article.cfm/us_general_george_patton</ref>

Patton was unrelenting in his fighting against the otherwise invincible German Army.  Historians estimate that Patton's Third Army caused an astounding 55% of all of Germany's causalities in the war, while Patton's own men suffered only 9% of the losses on our side.<ref name="Patton"/>

Patton was unrelenting in his fighting against the otherwise invincible German Army.  Historians estimate that Patton's Third Army caused an astounding 55% of all of Germany's causalities in the war, while Patton's own men suffered only 9% of the losses on our side.<ref name="Patton"/>

On June 6, 1944, massive Allies forces led by the American soldiers landed at Normandy, France, to retake mainland Europe from the Germans.  Called the "longest day" or "D-Day" (day-day), it was the largest land invasion in the history of the world.  Participants said the ocean was completely filled with boats and soldiers and it was difficult to see much water.  The invasion caught the Germans, already weakened by Patton, off guard.

On June 6, 1944, massive Allied forces led by the American soldiers landed at Normandy, France, to retake mainland Europe from the Germans.  Called the "longest day" or "D-Day" (day-day), it was the largest land invasion in the history of the world.  Participants said the ocean was completely filled with boats and soldiers and it was difficult to see much water.  The invasion caught the Germans, already weakened by Patton, off guard.

The Allied forces, with the strong and fresh American troops, began pushing through Europe.  Within months they liberated Florence, Paris, Pisa, Brussels and Antwerp, in that order, and started to enter German soil.  But in December the Germans launched a fierce counterattack known as the Battle of the Bulge, causing the Americans 19,000 deaths in a just a few weeks.

The Allied forces, with the strong and fresh American troops, began pushing through Europe.  Within months they liberated Florence, Paris, Pisa, Brussels and Antwerp, in that order, and started to enter German soil.  But in December the Germans launched a fierce counterattack known as the Battle of the Bulge, causing the Americans 19,000 deaths in a just a few weeks.

The Allies did not discovery the concentration camps used for the Holocaust until April 1945.  Allied commander and future President Dwight Eisenhower described his horror:<ref>http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=136</ref>

The Allies did not discover the concentration camps used for the Holocaust until April 1945.  Allied commander and future President Dwight Eisenhower described his horror:<ref>http://ww2db.com/battle_spec.php?battle_id=136</ref>

:I have never felt able to describe my emotional reactions when I first came face to face with indisputable evidence of Nazi brutality and ruthless disregard of every shred of decency.... I have never at any other time experienced an equal sense of shock.

:I have never felt able to describe my emotional reactions when I first came face to face with indisputable evidence of Nazi brutality and ruthless disregard of every shred of decency.... I have never at any other time experienced an equal sense of shock.

A week later, on May 7, 1945, the German troops unconditionally surrendered, and the world rejoiced.  A month later, on June 5th, the Allies divided up Germany into western and eastern sections, and three weeks after that, on June 26, the Charter for the United Nations was signed in San Francisco.

A week later, on May 7, 1945, the German troops unconditionally surrendered, and the world rejoiced.  A month later, on June 5th, the Allies divided up Germany into western and eastern sections, and three weeks after that, on June 26, the Charter for the United Nations was signed in San Francisco.

But the war continued against Japan, and Japanese soldiers had a religious fanaticism that prevented them from surrendering at any cost.  America had the upper hand every since it had won the Battle of Midway in the Pacific back in June 1942, but the Japanese were never going to surrender unless something extraordinary happened.  The extraordinary opportunity was provided by America's secret development of the atomic bomb.  Years earlier some physicists, including a friend of Albert Einstein who persuaded him to write a letter, feared that Germany was developing an atomic bomb and they urged the President to develop it before Germany did.  (In fact, Germany was not making any progress.)  The President did not act on Einstein's letter, but later he did begin the Manhattan Project to develop our own atomic bomb at a secret facility in Los Alamos, New Mexico.  Top physicists led the project.  Roosevelt never lived to hear of its success.  It was only after Truman replaced Roosevelt as President that the physicists had been successful in testing the new atomic bomb that they developed.

But the war continued against Japan, and Japanese soldiers had a fanaticism that prevented them from surrendering at any cost.  America had the upper hand every since it had won the Battle of Midway in the Pacific back in June 1942, but the Japanese were never going to surrender unless something extraordinary happened.  The extraordinary opportunity was provided by America's secret development of the atomic bomb.  Years earlier some physicists, including a friend of Albert Einstein who persuaded him to write a letter, feared that Germany was developing an atomic bomb and they urged the President to develop it before Germany did.  (In fact, Germany was not making any progress.)  The President did not act on Einstein's letter, but later he did begin the Manhattan Project to develop our own atomic bomb at a secret facility in Los Alamos, New Mexico.  Top physicists led the project.  Roosevelt never lived to hear of its success.  It was only after Truman replaced Roosevelt as President that the physicists had been successful in testing the new atomic bomb that they developed.

As president, Truman was an impulsive and not very bright man.  He still holds the record for the lowest approval rating (only 23% of the country approving of his performance) in his last year in office (1952).  When there was an ugly strike against a steel company, he impulsively ordered a government takeover of the entire company (the Supreme Court later invalidated his action).  When a reporter wrote a negative review about his daughter's piano recital, Truman said he wanted to punch the reporter in the face for it.  When General Douglas MacArthur wanted to be more aggressive in the Korean War, Truman simply fired him.   

As president, Truman was an impulsive and not very bright man.  He still holds the record for the lowest approval rating (only 23% of the country approving of his performance) in his last year in office (1952).  When there was an ugly strike against a steel company, he impulsively ordered a government takeover of the entire company (the Supreme Court later invalidated his action).  When a reporter wrote a negative review about his daughter's piano recital, Truman said he wanted to punch the reporter in the face for it.  When General Douglas MacArthur wanted to be more aggressive in the Korean War, Truman simply fired him.   

From 1943 through 1945, the Allies held a series of conferences for the purpose of strategic planning for the end of the war:

From 1943 through 1945, the Allies held a series of conferences for the purpose of strategic planning for the end of the war:

*Casablanca Conference, Jan. 14–24, 1943, was a meeting between the U.S. and Britain during which they agreed to fight until their enemies (the Axis Powers - Germany, Italy and Japan) unconditionally surrenders

*Casablanca Conference, Jan. 14–24, 1943, was a meeting between the U.S. and Britain during which they agreed to fight until their enemies (the Axis Powers - Germany, Italy and Japan) unconditionally surrender.

*Tehran Conference, Nov.-Dec. 1943, was the Soviet Union Stalin's first conference and he promised to help against Japan after the defeat of Germany, and the U.S. agreed to the D-Day invasion

*Tehran Conference, Nov.-Dec. 1943, was the Soviet Union Stalin's first conference and he promised to help against Japan after the defeat of Germany, and the U.S. agreed to the D-Day invasion.

*Yalta Conference, Feb. 1945, during which the Allies agreed to divide Germany into 4 military zones (denazification) and Stalin lied in agreeing to hold free elections in Eastern Europe after the war.  The Allies also planned to start the United Nations

*Yalta Conference, Feb. 1945, during which the Allies agreed to divide Germany into 4 military zones (denazification) and Stalin lied in agreeing to hold free elections in Eastern Europe after the war.  The Allies also planned to start the United Nations.

*Potsdam Conference, July-Aug. 1945, was Truman's first conference after Roosevelt died.  Truman played cards (as was his habit) most of the time and little was accomplished.  The Allies agreed to demand Japan's unconditional surrender

*Potsdam Conference, July-Aug. 1945, was Truman's first conference after Roosevelt died.  Truman played cards (as was his habit) most of the time and little was accomplished.  The Allies agreed to demand Japan's unconditional surrender.

== Cold War ==

== Cold War ==

The Cold War took the form of publicity campaigns also.  In 1942, the "Voice of America" was founded as a radio program to broadcast the American message of freedom from friendly countries to reach audiences inside neighboring communist countries.  It continues to exist to this day.   

The Cold War took the form of publicity campaigns also.  In 1942, the "Voice of America" was founded as a radio program to broadcast the American message of freedom from friendly countries to reach audiences inside neighboring communist countries.  It continues to exist to this day.   

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was a solid ally of the United States against communism.  From 1940 to 1945, Churchill had been the most popular man in England.  His approval ratings had never fallen below 78%.  In May 1945, his approval rating stood at 83%, and he began running for reelection.<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/election_01.shtml</ref>  He then lost in a landslide!  Historians to this day debate why that happened. Possible explanations range from how voters wanted to move towards the future and forget about the war, to a feeling that Churchill had finished his work.  Truth be told, political outcomes can be surprising, and there is often little logic in politics.  The real benefit of democracy is not that arrives at the best outcome, but that it provides an element of surprise to check and balance against tyranny.

British Prime Minister Winston Churchill was a solid ally of the United States against communism.  From 1940 to 1945, Churchill had been the most popular man in England.  His approval ratings had never fallen below 78%.  In May 1945, his approval rating stood at 83%, and he began running for reelection.<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/election_01.shtml</ref>  He then lost in a landslide!  Historians to this day debate why that happened. Possible explanations range from how voters wanted to move towards the future and forget about the war, to a feeling that Churchill had finished his work.  Truth be told, political outcomes can be surprising, and there is often little logic in politics.  The real benefit of democracy is not that it arrives at the best outcome, but that it provides an element of surprise to check and balance against tyranny.  Also, politics is about the future, not the past, and Churchill's leadership of Britain during the war said nothing about how he would lead in peacetime.

In 1946, Churchill traveled to Missouri to receive an honorary degree.  He then delivered remarks that were prophetic:<ref>http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/churchill-iron.html</ref>

In 1946, Churchill traveled to Missouri to receive an honorary degree.  He then delivered remarks that were prophetic:<ref>http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/churchill-iron.html</ref>

:It is my duty ... to place before you certain facts about the present position in Europe.  From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia; all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and in some cases increasing measure of control from Moscow.  

:It is my duty ... to place before you certain facts about the present position in Europe.  From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an '''iron curtain''' has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of Central and Eastern Europe. Warsaw, Berlin, Prague, Vienna, Budapest, Belgrade, Bucharest and Sofia; all these famous cities and the populations around them lie in what I must call the Soviet sphere, and all are subject, in one form or another, not only to Soviet influence but to a very high and in some cases increasing measure of control from Moscow.  

With this "Iron Curtain Speech" about how the communists had gained control over Eastern Europe, Americans were on full notice about the communist threat posed to the world by the Soviet Union.

With this "Iron Curtain Speech" about how the communists had gained control over Eastern Europe, Americans were on full notice about the communist threat posed to the world by the Soviet Union.

That same year, 1947, saw the founding of two important government groups to defend the security of the United States against foreign enemies.  The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was created in order to gather "intelligence" (key information) outside the United States through "overt and covert" methods.  In simple terms, it is a spy agency.  It uses information collected by other United States agencies (hence its name "central intelligence") and set goals for "intelligence" gathering.  It has become an object of controversy and many Hollywood movies!  In addition, the National Security Act established the National Security Council as an advisory body to the president on national security issues.  It uses the CIA to gather information for it.

That same year, 1947, saw the founding of two important government groups to defend the security of the United States against foreign enemies.  The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) was created in order to gather "intelligence" (key information) outside the United States through "overt and covert" methods.  In simple terms, it is a spy agency.  It uses information collected by other United States agencies (hence its name "central intelligence") and set goals for "intelligence" gathering.  It has become an object of controversy and many Hollywood movies!  In addition, the National Security Act established the National Security Council as an advisory body to the president on national security issues.  It uses the CIA to gather information for it.

In 1948, the United States and Western European nations formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization to guard against the threat posed by the communist Soviet Union.

In 1948, the United States and Western European nations formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ("NATO") to guard against the threat posed by the communist Soviet Union.

== Communist Infiltration ==

== Communist Infiltration ==