Changes

In Russia, absolute emperors known as “czars” arose.  The first czar of Russia was Ivan IV “the Terrible,” who executed many innocent people during his fearful reign from 1547 to 1584.  Ivan was succeeded by his son Feodor, whose repeated failures led Russia into a “Time of Troubles.”  In 1613, the first of a long line of Romanov czars, Mikhail Romanov, took the throne.  Under Romanov rule, serfs lost almost all of their freedoms.  Peter the Great, another Romanov who ruled Russia from 1682 to 1696, instituted sweeping reforms in Russian government and society.  He built St. Petersburg and tried to make European traditions a part of Russia.  In the Great Northern War against Sweden, new territories were gained.  Other absolutist rulers arose, such as the Hapsburg Empress Maria Theresa in Austria, and the Hohenzollern Frederick the Great from Prussia.  These two rulers clashed in the War of the Austrian Succession, during which Frederick won the territory of Silesia.   

In Russia, absolute emperors known as “czars” arose.  The first czar of Russia was Ivan IV “the Terrible,” who executed many innocent people during his fearful reign from 1547 to 1584.  Ivan was succeeded by his son Feodor, whose repeated failures led Russia into a “Time of Troubles.”  In 1613, the first of a long line of Romanov czars, Mikhail Romanov, took the throne.  Under Romanov rule, serfs lost almost all of their freedoms.  Peter the Great, another Romanov who ruled Russia from 1682 to 1696, instituted sweeping reforms in Russian government and society.  He built St. Petersburg and tried to make European traditions a part of Russia.  In the Great Northern War against Sweden, new territories were gained.  Other absolutist rulers arose, such as the Hapsburg Empress Maria Theresa in Austria, and the Hohenzollern Frederick the Great from Prussia.  These two rulers clashed in the War of the Austrian Succession, during which Frederick won the territory of Silesia.   

Europeans during this era desired a “balance of power” that would prevent any single nation from becoming most powerful.  The expression of this idea was seen in the intense competition and warfare between the various European nations for control in Europe, especially with the Thirty Years’ War.  The war initially began as a religious conflict in Germany between Bohemian Protestants and Hapsburg Catholics in 1618.  However, it soon became a political conflict for power that involved Spain, Holland, Denmark, France, Switzerland and The Holy Roman Empire.  The Treaty of Westphalia finally marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War in 1648.  The war significantly weakened Germany and the Holy Roman Empire, as well as Austria and Spain.  Although France was largely a Catholic country, it had chosen the side of the winning Protestants in order to oppose the Holy Roman Empire, and France emerged strengthened and more unified as a result.

Europeans during this era desired a “balance of power” that would prevent any single nation from becoming most powerful.  The expression of this idea was seen in the intense competition and warfare between the various European nations for control in Europe, especially with the Thirty Years’ War.  The war initially began as a religious conflict in Germany between Bohemian Protestants and Hapsburg Catholics in 1618.  Specifically, on May 23, 1618, two government officials were convicted of violating religious freedom, and were tossed out of a window of Prague Castle as their punishment.  This "Defenestration of Prague" started the Bohemian (Protestant) resistance against Hapsburg (Catholic) rule, igniting the Thirty Years' War.

 

The Thirty Years' War soon became a political conflict for power that involved Spain, Holland, Denmark, France, Switzerland and The Holy Roman Empire.  The Treaty of Westphalia finally marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War in 1648 (alas, 30 years after 1618).  The war significantly weakened Germany and the Holy Roman Empire, as well as Austria and Spain.  Although France was largely a Catholic country, it had chosen the side of the winning Protestants in order to oppose the Holy Roman Empire, and France emerged strengthened and more unified as a result.

==The Scientific Revolution==

==The Scientific Revolution==