Changes

American history covers only about 400 years; World history concerns over 5000 years, going back to the first evidence of recorded events.  Our class covers much of the material in a course on Western Civilization or European history, but we cover more too.  We will learn about Islam and Hinduism and all the forces that continue to shape our world to this day.  One cannot fully understand 9/11, violence in the Middle East, or hostility between India and Pakistan without learning World history.

American history covers only about 400 years; World history concerns over 5000 years, going back to the first evidence of recorded events.  Our class covers much of the material in a course on Western Civilization or European history, but we cover more too.  We will learn about Islam and Hinduism and all the forces that continue to shape our world to this day.  One cannot fully understand 9/11, violence in the Middle East, or hostility between India and Pakistan without learning World history.

We will consider how mankind progressed in understanding the unseen, such as truth and gravity and God.  In mathematics, mankind progressed from the discovery of geometry ([[Greeks]]) to the concept of "zero" (Indians) to calculus (English).  In economics, mankind progressed from wage and price controls (Romans) to the "invisible hand" of the free market (Scottish), which then unleashed tremendous prosperity.  World history spans from pre-Christian to Christian.  What are we progressing towards now?  We will learn to use history to predict the future.

We will consider how mankind progressed in understanding the unseen, such as truth and gravity and God.  In mathematics, mankind progressed from the discovery of geometry ([[Greeks]]) to the concept of "zero" (Indians) to calculus (English).  In economics, mankind progressed from wage and price controls (Romans) to the "invisible hand" of the free market (English), which then unleashed tremendous prosperity.  Government progressed from rulers who claimed to be gods (Egyptians), to monarchs (Middle Ages), to constitutional republics (United States).  World history spans from pre-Christian to Christian.  What are we progressing towards now?  We will learn to use history to predict the future.

Do not be misled by thinking that ancient peoples were dumb or boring because they lacked the technology of modern society.  The Egyptians, for example, cleverly built the massive pyramids using techniques that no one to this day can figure out or duplicate.  In 2600 B.C., they constructed the pyramid of Khufu containing 6 million tons of stone extending to a height of 481 feet.  The workmanship was superior to anything we do today: the rock base was virtually flat, not varying in elevation by more than a half-inch; its orientation is precisely aligned with the points of a compass; its stones were perfect fits.  Inside was a chapel, a causeway, and a temple.  It amazes architects to this day.  We would not be able to duplicate it, and no one knows how the Egyptians were able to build these intricate structures 4600 years ago.  Many other cultures, from Mesopotamia to Greece to Rome to India to China, invented things and discovered knowledge that no one today is smart enough to duplicate.  Can you build a useful wheel, or make paper?

Do not be misled by thinking that ancient peoples were dumb or boring because they lacked the technology of modern society.  The Egyptians, for example, cleverly built the massive pyramids using techniques that no one to this day can figure out or duplicate.  In 2600 B.C., they constructed the pyramid of Khufu containing 6 million tons of stone extending to a height of 481 feet.  The workmanship was superior to anything we do today: the rock base was virtually flat, not varying in elevation by more than a half-inch; its orientation is precisely aligned with the points of a compass; its stones were perfect fits.  Inside was a chapel, a causeway, and a temple.  It amazes architects to this day.  We would not be able to duplicate it, and no one knows how the Egyptians were able to build these intricate structures 4600 years ago.  Many other cultures, from Mesopotamia to Greece to Rome to India to China, invented things and discovered knowledge that no one today is smart enough to duplicate.  Can you build a useful wheel, or make paper?

When did mankind first begin?  There is no reliable evidence of man existing before 3500 B.C.  The oldest writing was a pictographic tablet called a "cuneiform" (pronounced kyu-NEE-uh-form) dated to perhaps 3400 B.C. from Sumer (SOO-mur) in Southern Mesopotamia (where Iraq is today).  Cuneiform looks like chicken-scratches featuring wedge-like or arrow-shaped characters.  Although cuneiform was a primitive writing style, it continued in use until shortly before the birth of Christ.  Originally pictographs (e.g., to write "foot", you would draw a foot), cuneiform expanded to 600 stick-based symbols or figures, with each one developing multiple meanings (e.g., the symbol for "foot" also developed the meanings of "to go" or "to stand," depending on the context).<ref>http://i-cias.com/e.o/cuneiform.htm</ref>  For those who "text message" on cell phones, notice how each key has multiple possible letters and how the phone resolves the ambiguity and forms words depending on how the letters fit together to form a word.  Cuneiform had only 600 symbols, but their multiple meanings were resolved by seeing how they fit together to form sentences.  Notice that cuneiform was not an alphabet or western-style script; the oldest script-based language is from the Indo-Aryan language, and an example dating back to 1550 B.C. was found in the Sinai.

When did mankind first begin?  There is no reliable evidence of man existing before 3500 B.C.  The oldest writing was a pictographic tablet called a "cuneiform" (pronounced kyu-NEE-uh-form) dated to perhaps 3400 B.C. from Sumer (SOO-mur) in Southern Mesopotamia (where Iraq is today).  Cuneiform looks like chicken-scratches featuring wedge-like or arrow-shaped characters.  Although cuneiform was a primitive writing style, it continued in use until shortly before the birth of Christ.  Originally pictographs (e.g., to write "foot", you would draw a foot), cuneiform expanded to 600 stick-based symbols or figures, with each one developing multiple meanings (e.g., the symbol for "foot" also developed the meanings of "to go" or "to stand," depending on the context).<ref>http://i-cias.com/e.o/cuneiform.htm</ref>  For those who "text message" on cell phones, notice how each key has multiple possible letters and how the phone resolves the ambiguity and forms words depending on how the letters fit together to form a word.  Cuneiform had only 600 symbols, but their multiple meanings were resolved by seeing how they fit together to form sentences.  Notice that cuneiform was not an alphabet or western-style script; the oldest script-based language is from the Indo-Aryan language, and an example dating back to 1550 B.C. was found in the Sinai.

Historians feel that spoken language originated in southeastern Europe near the Black Sea, not far from the Ararat mountain range cited in the Bible in connection with Noah.  Using population estimates, we know that about 300 million people existed in the world at the time of Christ, and extrapolating backwards yields only one family in the year 3300 B.C.  The oldest trees do not predate this time; the oldest sequoias, which never die of old age, but which, of course, do succumb to diseases, forest fires, and animal damage, are no older than 2000 B.C.

Historians feel that spoken language originated in southeastern Europe near the Black Sea, not far from the Ararat mountain range cited in the Bible in connection with Noah.  Using population estimates, we know that about 300 million people existed in the world at the time of Christ, and extrapolating backwards yields only one family in the year 3300 B.C.  The oldest trees do not predate this time; the oldest sequoias, which never die of old age, are no older than 2000 B.C.

No "civilization" has been found that is older than about 3000 B.C.  By "civilization" we mean an order and hierarchy in the way of life.  Some type of political system or government is usually necessary to have a civilization.  A structure similar to a city or town is necessary to bring together people, jobs, buildings or religious centers.  Usually there are different classes of people, such as rich and poor.  Some historians say there must be an agricultural surplus also:  enough food to feed the people so that some workers could spend time in jobs other than farming.  In a nutshell, a civilization must have cities, skilled (non-farming) workers, social and government institutions, writing to maintain records such as property ownership, and advanced technology.  Memorize the oldest dates for the ancient civilizations:

No "civilization" has been found that is older than about 3000 B.C.  By "civilization" we mean an order and hierarchy in the way of life.  Some type of political system or government is usually necessary to have a civilization.  A structure similar to a city or town is necessary to bring together people, jobs, buildings or religious centers.  Usually there are different classes of people, such as rich and poor.  Some historians say there must be an agricultural surplus also:  enough food to feed the people so that some workers could spend time in jobs other than farming.  In a nutshell, a civilization must have cities, skilled (non-farming) workers, social and government institutions, writing to maintain records such as property ownership, and advanced technology.  Memorize the oldest dates for the ancient civilizations:

<tr><td>'''Name'''</td><td>'''Time of existence'''</td></tr><tr><td>

<tr><td>'''Name'''</td><td>'''Time of existence'''</td></tr><tr><td>

[[Mesopotamia]] (Mes-uh-puh-tay-mee-uh)</td><td>3500 – 500 B.C., when conquered by Persia</tr><tr><td>

[[Mesopotamia]] (Mes-uh-puh-tay-mee-uh)</td><td>3500 – 500 B.C., when conquered by Persia</tr><tr><td>

Egypt</td><td> 3100 – 525 B.C., when conquered by Persia

Egypt</td><td> 3100 – 525 B.C., when conquered by the Hyksos (HIK-sohs)</td></tr><tr><td>

</td></tr><tr><td>

Indus (IN-dus) Valley:</td><td>beginning in 2900 B.C.</td></tr><tr><td>

Indus (IN-dus) Valley:</td><td>beginning in 2900 B.C.</td></tr><tr><td>

China:</td><td>beginning in 2200 B.C.</td></tr><tr><td>

China:</td><td>beginning in 2200 B.C.</td></tr><tr><td>

Temples were everywhere.  But the people also built stepped mountains known as ziggurats, with a temple on top, and the Bible tells how they tried to build one higher and higher.  A massive ziggurat at Ur that is described in Genesis 11:1-9 as the Tower of Babel led to hundreds of different languages (a division which may have also led to different ethnic groups) in the world.  As we shall learn in this course, language is a central part of a society that has much to do with its success or failure.  Societies with useful and powerful languages prospered; those with difficult-to-use and weak languages failed.

Temples were everywhere.  But the people also built stepped mountains known as ziggurats, with a temple on top, and the Bible tells how they tried to build one higher and higher.  A massive ziggurat at Ur that is described in Genesis 11:1-9 as the Tower of Babel led to hundreds of different languages (a division which may have also led to different ethnic groups) in the world.  As we shall learn in this course, language is a central part of a society that has much to do with its success or failure.  Societies with useful and powerful languages prospered; those with difficult-to-use and weak languages failed.

Genesis Chapter 10 places the roots of modern mankind in Noah and his three sons: Shem, Ham and Japheth.  The term "Semitic" means "pertaining to the descendants of Shem," and includes Assyrians, Chaldeans, Aramaeans, Sabaeans, and Hebrews. Semitic languages include Hebrew, Aramaic and Arabic.  Semitic religions include Judaism, Christianity and Islam.  One of Noah's descendants was Abram, who later changed his name to Abraham to reflect his covenant with God.

Genesis Chapter 10 places the roots of modern mankind in Noah and his three sons: Shem, Ham and Japheth.  The term "Semitic" means "pertaining to the descendants of Shem," and includes Assyrians, Chaldeans, Aramaeans, Sabaeans, and Hebrews (now known as Jews). Semitic languages include Hebrew, Aramaic and Arabic.  Semitic religions include Judaism, Christianity and Islam.  One of Noah's descendants was Abram, who later changed his name to Abraham to reflect his covenant with God.

Both the Bible and many independent sources describe a Great Flood (or "Deluge"), which historians date at about 3300 or 3000 B.C.  Very little of any history, including writings and civilization, has survived from before that time.  The biblical account of the Flood is at Genesis 5-8, describing an ark having reasonable dimensions similar to modern ocean steamships.  A non-biblical Sumerian (from Sumer in Mesopotamia) account of the Flood was found in the last hundred years, and that account was apparently written about 1600 B.C.  Even better, a cuneiform tablet from Babylon was found dating from 3000 B.C., which also described a massive flood in great detail.  There are many other ancient accounts of a massive flood found in most other cultures around the world.  Fossils and limestone (the result of ocean sediment) are found today on mountaintops and land worldwide at all altitudes.  Independent accounts of a great flood can be found in ancient works of China, India, Britain (Druid) and American Indians, all having striking similar details.<ref>See, e.g., http://www.searchgodsword.org/enc/isb/view.cgi?number=T2631</ref>  Recently two scientists at Columbia University published a widely praised book, entitled "Noah's Flood," which proved that the Flood did occur.  This book concludes that the biblical Flood "is surely a true story of the permanent destruction of a land and its people ...."<ref>Ryan & Pitman, "Noah's Flood" (Simon & Schuster, NY: 1998), p. 251.</ref>  Yet no public school textbook ever mentions a massive flood.

Both the Bible and many independent sources describe a Great Flood (or "Deluge"), which historians date at about 3300 or 3000 B.C.  Very little of any history, including writings and civilization, has survived from before that time.  The biblical account of the Flood is at Genesis 5-8, describing an ark having reasonable dimensions similar to modern ocean steamships.  A non-biblical Sumerian (from Sumer in Mesopotamia) account of the Flood was found in the last hundred years, and that account was apparently written about 1600 B.C.  Even better, a cuneiform tablet from Babylon was found dating from 3000 B.C., which also described a massive flood in great detail.  There are many other ancient accounts of a massive flood found in most other cultures around the world.  Fossils and limestone (the result of ocean sediment) are found today on mountaintops and land worldwide at all altitudes.  Independent accounts of a great flood can be found in ancient works of China, India, Britain (Druid) and American Indians, all having striking similar details.<ref>See, e.g., http://www.searchgodsword.org/enc/isb/view.cgi?number=T2631</ref>  Recently two scientists at Columbia University published a widely praised book, entitled "Noah's Flood," which proved that the Flood did occur.  This book concludes that the biblical Flood "is surely a true story of the permanent destruction of a land and its people ...."<ref>Ryan & Pitman, "Noah's Flood" (Simon & Schuster, NY: 1998), p. 251.</ref>  Yet no public school textbook ever mentions a massive flood.

==Israel==

==Israel==

While the Kassites were in control of Babylon, the oldest religion that is still active today began: Judaism.  The ancient Hebrews were descendants of Abram (later in his life his name became "Abraham", meaning "father of many"), who lived in Ur around 2000 B.C., and his wife Sarah, through their son Isaac and Isaac's son Jacob.  Later the name of the ancient Hebrews became known as the "Israelites", once the kingdom of the Hebrews was established with the crowning of King David around 1000 B.C.  But Israel did not remain intact as a nation in the ancient world; after the reigns of King David and his son Solomon, it split into two kingdoms, and then was captured and taken into captivity.  Beginning with the terminology in the Book of Esther, which was written between 200 and 300 B.C., the people of the former Israel became known as the "Jewish people," or the "Jews".  Judaism did not exist before Abraham; it would, however, be an anachronism to describe Abraham as Jewish even in the ancient sense let alone in the modern; and it is not known where his ancestors lived in the prior millennium; they could have lived throughout the Middle East, including ancient Egypt.

While the Kassites were in control of Babylon, the oldest religion that is still active today began: Judaism.  The ancient Hebrews were descendants of Abram (later in his life his name became "Abraham", meaning "father of many"), who lived in Ur around 2000 B.C., and his wife Sarah, through their son Isaac and Isaac's son Jacob.  Later the name of the ancient Hebrews became known as the "Israelites", once the kingdom of the Hebrews was established with the crowning of King David around 1000 B.C.  But Israel did not remain intact as a nation in the ancient world; after the reigns of King David and his son Solomon, it split into two kingdoms, and then was captured and taken into captivity.  Beginning with the terminology in the Book of Esther, which was written between 200 and 300 B.C., the people of the former Israel became known as the "Jewish people," or the "Jews".  Judaism did not exist before Abraham, and it is not known where his ancestors lived in the prior millennium; they could have lived throughout the Middle East, including ancient Egypt.

The timeline is easy to remember:  '''Jesus (6 B.C. to about A.D. 30) lived half-way between Abraham (2000 B.C.) and today (A.D. 2009).  King David and the founding of Israel was halfway between Abraham and Jesus.'''

The timeline is easy to remember:  '''Jesus (6 B.C. to about A.D. 30) lived half-way between Abraham (2000 B.C.) and today (A.D. 2009).  King David and the founding of Israel was halfway between Abraham and Jesus.'''

The conflict between the Hebrew (Jewish) and Arab peoples is described by some as a family feud.  Both sides are descended from the same father, Abraham, as recounted in Genesis 16.  But Jewish and Arab peoples trace their lineage from different sons of Abraham who were rivals for their father's love.  The Bible states that Jewish people are descendants of Isaac, the child of Abraham and Sarah.  The Koran (the main holy book of Islam) states that Arabs are descended from Ishmael, the son of Abraham (then Abram) and the Egyptian woman Hagar.  The Old Testament teaches that Abraham offered to sacrifice his son Isaac to the Lord, while Islam teaches that Abraham's sacrifice was of his son Ishmael.  Islam teaches that Ishmael helped Abraham build a mosque in Mecca (the venerated Kaaba).  Ishmael went a different way from the rest of Abraham's family, and there have been hard feelings by Ishmael's descendants ever since.  Note that the Bible's version of this was written first, preceding the Koran by over a thousand years.

The conflict between the Hebrew (Jewish) and Arab peoples is described by some as a family feud.  Both sides are descended from the same father, Abraham, as recounted in Genesis 16.  But Jewish and Arab peoples trace their lineage from different sons of Abraham who were rivals for their father's love.  The Bible states that Jewish people are descendants of Isaac, the child of Abraham and Sarah.  The Koran (the main holy book of Islam) states that Arabs are descended from Ishmael, the son of Abraham (then Abram) and the Egyptian woman Hagar.  The Old Testament teaches that Abraham offered to sacrifice his son Isaac to the Lord, while Islam teaches that Abraham's sacrifice was of his son Ishmael.  Islam teaches that Ishmael helped Abraham build a mosque in Mecca (the venerated Kaaba).  Ishmael went a different way from the rest of Abraham's family, and there have been hard feelings by Ishmael's descendants ever since.  Note that the Bible's version of this was written first, preceding the Koran by over a thousand years.

The ancient Hebrews who were descended from Jacob migrated away from Ur in Mesopotamia to Palestine, where they resided between 2000 and about 1500 B.C.  But they migrated over to Egypt to escape a bad famine.  There they served as slaves for perhaps hundreds of years, though they undoubtedly contributed greatly to the intellectual progress of the Egyptian culture.  As described in the Book of Exodus, Moses (who had been adopted by a royal family there) ultimately led 600,000 Hebrews out of Egypt around 1250 B.C.<ref>1250 B.C. is known as the "late date" or estimate for the time of the Exodus; the "early date" or estimate for the Exodus is 1447 B.C.</ref>  Egyptian historians refer to slaves and captives called "Hapiru", but some doubt that these were the Hebrews.  Regardless, the Bible contains many verified references to the Egyptian pharaohs demonstrating that the Jewish ancestors were in Egypt.  The Hebrews' escape from Egypt is called the "Exodus", and is described by that book in the Old Testament.  During the passage, Moses received the Ten Commandments from God on Mount Sinai. (In Manhattan today there is a famous medical school on the upper East Side named "Mount Sinai.")  Moses is also credited as being the scribe for the first five books of the Bible (the "Pentateuch" or in Hebrew תּוֹרָה, the Torah).

The ancient Hebrews who were descended from Jacob migrated away from Ur in Mesopotamia to Palestine, where they resided between 2000 and about 1500 B.C.  But they migrated over to Egypt to escape a bad famine.  There they served as slaves for perhaps hundreds of years, though they undoubtedly contributed greatly to the intellectual progress of the Egyptian culture.  As described in the Book of Exodus, Moses (who had been adopted by a royal family there) ultimately led 600,000 Hebrews out of Egypt around 1250 B.C.<ref>1250 B.C. is known as the "late date" or estimate for the time of the Exodus; the "early date" or estimate for the Exodus is 1447 B.C.</ref>  Egyptian historians refer to slaves and captives called "Hapiru", but some doubt that these were the Hebrews.  Regardless, the Bible contains many verified references to the Egyptian pharaohs demonstrating that the Jewish ancestors were in Egypt.  The Hebrews' escape from Egypt is called the "Exodus", and is described by that book in the Old Testament.  During the passage, Moses received the Ten Commandments from God on Mount Sinai. (In Manhattan today there is a famous medical school on the upper East Side named "Mount Sinai.")  Moses is also credited as being the scribe for the first five books of the Bible (the "Pentateuch" or, when part of a parchment scroll in the Jewish liturgy, the "Torah").

The dates given below are estimates, and the homework encourages you to improve on them:

The dates given below are estimates, and the homework encourages you to improve on them:

|-

|-

|Flood

|Flood

|perhaps 2300 B.C.

|perhaps 3300 B.C.

|-

|-

|Tower of Babel

|Tower of Babel

|perhaps 2200 B.C.

|perhaps 2500 B.C.

|-

|-

|Call of Abram (Abraham)

|Call of Abram (Abraham)

|}

|}

While most ancient peoples worshiped many pagan (non-existent) gods, the Hebrews worshiped only one God (''monolatry'') (but even misbehaving Hebrews had false gods – note the Second Commandment).  The Hebrews referred to God as "YHVH" (Latinised as "Jehovah"), and to this day observant Jewish people consider it improper to pronounce this name or write it for trivial purposes; some prefer not even to write the English word "God", and instead write "G-d".  

While most ancient peoples worshiped many pagan (non-existent) gods, the Hebrews worshiped only one God (but even misbehaving Hebrews had false gods – note the Second Commandment).  The Hebrews referred to God as "Yahweh" (or "Jehovah"), and to this day some observant Jewish people consider it improper to write the name of God, and instead they write "G-d". "Yahweh" simply means "I am who I am," written in the Hebrew language (which lacks vowels) as YHWH.  ("Yah" by itself means simply, "I am.")  It is the name God instructed Moses to use at the encounter at the miraculous burning bush that continued to burn without destruction in Exodus 3:14:  "God said to Moses, 'I AM WHO I AM'; and He said, 'Thus you shall say to the sons of Israel, 'I AM has sent me to you.'"

 

It is the name God instructed Moses to use at the encounter at the miraculous burning bush that continued to burn without destruction in Exodus 3:14:  "God said to Moses, 'I AM WHO I AM'; and He said, 'Thus you shall say to the sons of Israel, 'I AM has sent me to you.'"

It remains a mystery as to precisely when the books of the Old Testament were written, but here are some estimates:

It remains a mystery as to precisely when the books of the Old Testament were written, but here are some estimates:

More than a thousand years later, during the Islamic conquest of Iran, the Muslims planned to destroy this tomb because it is contrary to their religion.  However, the possibility that the tomb was somehow built to honor the mother of King Solomon, a respected prophet in Islam, justified preserving the tomb to this day, and it is inscribed today with the following verse of the Qur'an (Koran): "Qabr-e Madar-e Sulaiman" which means the tomb of the mother of Solomon.

More than a thousand years later, during the Islamic conquest of Iran, the Muslims planned to destroy this tomb because it is contrary to their religion.  However, the possibility that the tomb was somehow built to honor the mother of King Solomon, a respected prophet in Islam, justified preserving the tomb to this day, and it is inscribed today with the following verse of the Qur'an (Koran): "Qabr-e Madar-e Sulaiman" which means the tomb of the mother of Solomon.

<br>

<br><br>

<big>'''Rebuilding Jerusalem'''</big>

<big>'''Rebuilding Jerusalem'''</big>

Ancient Egypt is divided into three periods:  the Old Kingdom (3100-2200 B.C.), the Middle Kingdom (2100-1650 B.C.) and the New Kingdom (1550-700 B.C.).  The peak in power of ancient Egypt was 1567-1085 B.C.  

Ancient Egypt is divided into three periods:  the Old Kingdom (3100-2200 B.C.), the Middle Kingdom (2100-1650 B.C.) and the New Kingdom (1550-700 B.C.).  The peak in power of ancient Egypt was 1567-1085 B.C.  

The '''Old Kingdom''' is known for its security and prosperity, free from foreign invaders.  A unique Egyptian kingship developed during this period, and they built the great pyramids, including the Great Pyramid of Giza (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) as built by Pharaoh Khufu or Cheops (pronounced KEE-aps).  The pyramids protected and preserved pharaohs for what they expected in the after-life, and were marvelous engineering feats that cannot be surpassed even today.<ref>"... the Egyptians were able to get the blocks to fit so well together that a postcard cannot even be inserted in between them. [http://www.freeessays.cc/db/26/hce195.shtml] </ref>

The '''Old Kingdom''' is known for its security and prosperity, free from foreign invaders.  A unique Egyptian kingship developed during this period, and they built the great pyramids, including the Great Pyramid of Giza (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World) as built by Pharaoh Khufu or Cheops (pronounced KEE-aps).  The pyramids protected and preserved pharaohs for what they expected in the after-life, and were marvelous engineering feats that cannot be duplicated even today.

The '''Middle Kingdom''' was a period during which Egyptian religion extended beyond the kings to the nobles and ordinary citizens.  Pharaohs began to share power with local distinguished persons.  The pharaohs were strong during this period and promoted trade by digging the Great Canal, which connected the Nile River to the Red Sea.  The Middle Kingdom is best known for its cultural achievements, such as literature and artwork.  During this period the Egyptians were also successful in draining parts of the Nile delta in Lower (northern) Egypt.  Trade expanded, but civil war plagued the Middle Kingdom just as it was a problem in the Old Kingdom.

The '''Middle Kingdom''' was a period during which Egyptian religion extended beyond the kings to the nobles and ordinary citizens.  Pharaohs began to share power with local distinguished persons.  The pharaohs were strong during this period and promoted trade by digging the Great Canal, which connected the Nile River to the Red Sea.  The Middle Kingdom is best known for its cultural achievements, such as literature and artwork.  During this period the Egyptians were also successful in draining parts of the Nile delta in Lower (northern) Egypt.  Trade expanded, but civil war plagued the Middle Kingdom just as it was a problem in the Old Kingdom.

''Language'': The Egyptians developed a written language consisting of hieroglyphics, which are pictographs.  It originated around 3100 B.C.  It was written on papyrus as a kind of paper; papyrus is a thin parchment constructed from reeds near the Nile river.  Historians could not understand hieroglyphics until the discovery of the "Rosetta Stone" by Napoleon's troops in 1799 near the seaside town of Rosetta, located in northern Egypt.  It sits in the British Museum today.  It consists of a slab of black basalt inscribing a royal decree to the king Ptolemy V, dating from 196 B.C.  The Stone is marvelous in inscribing the same message three times: once in Greek, once in Demotic (a simple form of hieroglyphics used 700 B.C. to A.D. 400), and once in hieroglyphic.  This enabled a French expert in the Greek language, Jean Francois Champollion, to determine what the hieroglyphic characters mean, and build a dictionary that could be used to translate other works written in hieroglyphics.  Champollion had been a child prodigy in learning numerous languages while still a teenager.

''Language'': The Egyptians developed a written language consisting of hieroglyphics, which are pictographs.  It originated around 3100 B.C.  It was written on papyrus as a kind of paper; papyrus is a thin parchment constructed from reeds near the Nile river.  Historians could not understand hieroglyphics until the discovery of the "Rosetta Stone" by Napoleon's troops in 1799 near the seaside town of Rosetta, located in northern Egypt.  It sits in the British Museum today.  It consists of a slab of black basalt inscribing a royal decree to the king Ptolemy V, dating from 196 B.C.  The Stone is marvelous in inscribing the same message three times: once in Greek, once in Demotic (a simple form of hieroglyphics used 700 B.C. to A.D. 400), and once in hieroglyphic.  This enabled a French expert in the Greek language, Jean Francois Champollion, to determine what the hieroglyphic characters mean, and build a dictionary that could be used to translate other works written in hieroglyphics.  Champollion had been a child prodigy in learning numerous languages while still a teenager.

Egypt's complex, picture-based writing system lasted for many years. It is important to emphasize that the hieroglyphs were not merely pictures of the semantic concepts signified, but included characters representing more abstract phonemic and morphemic categories. Abstract concepts could thus be represented. The difference between a language and a writing system should also be borne in mind.

Egypt's complex, picture-based language probably hindered its growth. The picture-based language was not as easy to use as the alphabet-based Phoenician language later adopted by the Greeks and Romans. How would one express Christian concepts like salvation, faith, hope and redemption in hieroglyphics?  It seems impossible.

''Science'':  A magnificent city named "Alexandria" was created by Alexander the Great in Egypt in 334 B.C., and it became a cultural center for many centuries.  Eventually it grew to be second only to Rome in size and wealth, but declined over a thousand years later after Islamic conquerors established Cairo as the capital of Egypt.  Alexandria was best known for the Lighthouse of Alexandria, which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.  Alexandria is also known for the Library of Alexandria, which was the largest in the world at that time and reflected the cultural leadership of the city.

''Science'':  A magnificent city named "Alexandria" was created by Alexander the Great in Egypt in 334 B.C., and it became a cultural center for many centuries.  Eventually it grew to be second only to Rome in size and wealth, but declined over a thousand years later after Islamic conquerors established Cairo as the capital of Egypt.  Alexandria was best known for the Lighthouse of Alexandria, which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.  Alexandria is also known for the Library of Alexandria, which was the largest in the world at that time and reflected the cultural leadership of the city.

   

   

''Culture'': Egypt used slaves as most ancient cultures did.  Women in Egypt were very powerful, holding the right to own property, divorce their husbands, manage businesses and even become priestesses.  It was possible for poor people to rise to the upper class through talent and hard work.  Taxes were a burden.  The government claimed ownership of one-fifth of all produce (Genesis 47:24).  The society had some ethical principles, such as the royal advice that "more acceptable is the character of one upright of heart than the ox of the evildoer."  Feeding the poor, taking care of the disadvantaged, and avoid bribes in administering justice were respected.  The Egyptians learned to travel up and down the Nile River by using the current in one direction, and the Etesian winds to propel sailboats upstream into the other direction.  Egyptian architecture was the pyramid and colonnaded temples like the one Karnak, using a style later copied by the Greeks.  

''Culture'': Egypt used slaves as most ancient cultures did.  Women in Egypt were very powerful, holding the right to own property, divorce their husbands, manage businesses and even become priestesses.  It was possible for poor people to rise to the upper class through talent and hard work.  Taxes were a burden.  The government claimed ownership of one-fifth of all produce (Genesis 47:24).  The society had some ethical principles, such as the royal advice that "more acceptable is the character of one upright of heart than the ox of the evildoer."  Feeding the poor, taking care of the disadvantaged, and avoid bribes in administering justice were respected.  The Egyptians learned to travel up and down the Nile River by using the current in one direction, and the Etesian winds to propel sailboats upstream into the other direction.  Egyptian architecture was the pyramid and colonnaded temples like the one Karnak, using a style later copied by the Greeks.  

''Trade'':  Egypt was not as advanced as Mesopotamia in trade, though trade did improve during the New Kingdom and some commerce with Sumer was established then.

''Trade'' and ''Inventions'':  Egypt was not as advanced as Mesopotamia in trade and inventions.  Egypt's trade did improve during the New Kingdom and some commerce with Sumer was established then.  Egyptians invented our 365-day solar calendar, based on 12 months of about 30 days each.  But we owe our "base 60" system for our clock (60 seconds in a minute and 60 minutes in an hour) to Mesopotamia.  Egyptians lacked money, and relied on primitive barter (selling a good in exchange for a different good in return).  The Egyptian Old Kingdom lacked the wheel; the pyramids were built without use of the wheel!

 

''Inventions'': Egyptians invented our 365-day solar calendar, based on 12 months of about 30 days each.  But Mesopotamia was more advanced than Egypt.  To Mesopotamia we owe our "base 60" system for our clock (60 seconds in a minute and 60 minutes in an hour).  Egyptians lacked the concept of money, and relied on primitive barter (selling a good in exchange for a different good in return).  The Egyptian Old Kingdom lacked the wheel; the pyramids were built without use of the wheel!

== References ==

== References ==