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=== Classical Indian Civilization ===

=== Classical Indian Civilization ===

The beginning of classical India was when the Achaemenid Persians invaded the Indus Valley region in 572 B.C. Aryans led by Magadha joined together to repel the Persians, but internal religious conflict prevented unity.   

The beginning of “classical India” was when the Achaemenid Persians invaded the Indus Valley region in 572 B.C.; Aryans led by Magadha joined together to try to repel the Persians, but internal religious conflict prevented unity.   

Later Alexander the Great invaded this region in 327 B.C., spreading [[Greeks|Greek]] influence.  The time Alexander's troops spent in India must have been a strange experience for them.  For example, they had never seen elephants.  Imagine their surprise when the Indians fought from atop these massive creatures during a battle on the banks of the river.  In that same battle, Alexander's favorite horse, Buchephalus, was injured and died.  After that, Alexander wanted to continue East, but his troops refused, and he was forced to leave India unconquered.  So only India was able to stop Alexander the Great, or at least survive his conquests.

Later Alexander the Great invaded this region, in 327 B.C., spreading Hellenistic ([[Greeks|Greek]]) influence.  The time Alexander's troops spent in India must have been a strange experience for them.  For example, they had never before seen elephants.  Imagine their surprise when the Indians fought from atop these massive creatures during a battle on the banks of the river.  In that same battle, Alexander's favorite horse, Buchephalus, was injured and died.  After that, Alexander wanted to continue East, but his troops refused, and he was forced to leave India unconquered.  So only India was able to stop Alexander the Great, or at least survive his conquests.

Afterward, in 322 B.C., Chandragupta Mauryan defeated the Greek general Seleucus, who ruled a large part of East Asia which Alexander the Great had conquered.  Chandragupta Mauryan became king of Seleucus' land, creating the largest Indian empire in India's history.  He built an elaborate capital city at Pataliputra, which surpassed even the splendor of the great Persian cities, and was the largest city in the world at that time, with over 150,000 inhabitants.<ref>http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0038472.html</ref> It was home to several Buddhist monasteries.   

Afterward, in 322 B.C., Chandragupta Mauryan defeated the Greek general Seleucus, who ruled a large part of East Asia which Alexander the Great had conquered.  Chandragupta Mauryan became king of Seleucus' land, creating the largest Indian empire in India's history.  He built an elaborate capital city at Pataliputra, which surpassed even the splendor of the great Persian cities and was the largest city in the world at that time, with over 150,000 inhabitants.<ref>http://www.tiscali.co.uk/reference/encyclopaedia/hutchinson/m0038472.html</ref> It was home to several Buddhist monasteries.   

Chandragupta Mauryan built a massive army of 500,000 soldiers and his adviser, Kautilya, wrote a book how to maintain political power entitled the "Arthashastra".  He wrote that punishment was the key to government.  In other words, Chandragupta was a tough dictator.  But his name is revered, as many Indians to this day bear the last name of "Chandra" or "Gupta".

Chandragupta Mauryan built a massive army of 500,000 soldiers and his adviser, Kautilya, wrote a book on how to maintain political power entitled the "Arthashastra".  He wrote that punishment was the key to government.  In other words, Chandragupta was a tough dictator.  But his name is revered, as many Indians to this day bear the last name of "Chandra" or "Gupta".

Chandragupta's grandson, Ashoka, underwent a religious conversion from Hinduism to Buddhism while he held power (268-232 B.C.).  Buddhism emphasizes non-violence and Ashoka's conversion caused him to rule as a benevolent dictator, stressing compassion and even apologizing for his role in killing 150,000 Indians!  He displayed tolerance towards all religions and helped erect shrines to Hinduism and Jainism, another religion of India.  Ashoka elevated the status of women, who were already highly respected under the Hindu culture.  In Buddhism women could become monks.  He also promoted trade with the expanding Roman empire to the West, and with the growing Han dynasty in China to the East.  But after Ashoka died, the empire fell into civil war, and became vulnerable to outside invaders, such as the Bactrian Greeks in the second century B.C. and the Buddhist Kushan in 100 B.C.  A council of Buddhist monks was convened under Kanishka, King of Kushan, to regulate Buddhism, and the result was a new form of Buddhism:  Mahayana Buddhism.

Chandragupta's grandson, Ashoka, underwent a religious conversion from Hinduism to Buddhism while he held power (268-232 B.C.).  Buddhism emphasizes non-violence and Ashoka's conversion caused him to rule as a benevolent dictator, stressing compassion and even apologizing for his role in killing 150,000 Indians!  He displayed tolerance towards all religions and helped erect shrines to Hinduism and Jainism, another religion of India.  Ashoka elevated the status of women, who were already highly respected under the Hindu culture.  In Buddhism women could become monks.  He also promoted trade with the expanding Roman empire to the West, and with the growing Han dynasty in China to the East.  But after Ashoka died, the empire fell into civil war, and became vulnerable to outside invaders, such as the Bactrian Greeks in the second century B.C. and the Buddhist Kushan in 100 B.C.  A council of Buddhist monks was convened under Kanishka, King of Kushan, to regulate Buddhism, and the result was a new form of Buddhism:  Mahayana Buddhism.

The other major Indian empire was the Gupta empire, from A.D. 320 to 467.  In A.D. 320 Chandra Gupta I rose to power, who had no connection with the prior ruler Chandragupta Mauryan.  Chandra Gupta I conquered the Ganges Valley, and established a new Hindu dynasty.  Trade with the rest of the world flourished under his regime, and he had a policy of religious tolerance.  Intellectual and economic achievement was high.  One famous poet and playwright was Kalidasa, who wrote epic poems and plays that were much more upbeat and happy than the dreary Greek tragedies.   

The other major Indian empire was the Gupta empire, from A.D. 320 to 467.  In A.D. 320 Chandra Gupta I rose to power, who had no connection with the prior ruler Chandragupta Mauryan.  Chandra Gupta I conquered the Ganges Valley, and established a new Hindu dynasty.  Trade with the rest of the world flourished under his regime, and he had a policy of religious tolerance.  Intellectual and economic achievement was high.  One famous poet and playwright was Kalidasa, who wrote epic poems and plays that were much more upbeat and happy than the dreary Greek tragedies.   

The Indian number system developed, which was later misnamed the "Arabic numerals."  The entire world used this system of numbering today: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.  A Buddhist monastery at Nalanda established a university that attracted thousands of students.  A great Indian doctor named Caraka developed a code of medical ethics, and the practice of medicine flourished.  The Indians also developed a form of iron that could withstand rust, and it was used in buildings.

The Indian number system developed, which was later misnamed the "Arabic numerals."  The entire world uses this system of numbering today: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.  A Buddhist monastery at Nalanda established a university that attracted thousands of students.  A great Indian doctor named Caraka developed a code of medical ethics, and the practice of medicine flourished.  Indians also developed a form of iron that could withstand rust, and it was used in buildings.

=== Hinduism ===

=== Hinduism ===

Hinduism is an ancient polytheistic religion, consisting of multiple gods who were ultimately thought to be part of one god: Brahma, the supreme god of life.  The name "Hindu" comes from the word Hindustan, the Persian word for riverland; the birth of Hinduism was the merger of the Upanishadic and Vedic religious traditions in ancient India.  Muslim invaders of the A.D. 11th and 13th centuries began using the term "Hindu" to describe Indians from this region who were not Buddhists and who refused to convert to Islam.  In the A.D. 16th century European merchants and missionaries started using the term also.  But while Hinduism is not limited to one set of clear and specific beliefs, it does represent an overall belief system and today there are nearly one billion adherents to Hinduism in the world, nearly all of whom live in or emigrated from India.  (There are also significant Muslim and Christian populations in India today; Mother Theresa won a Nobel Peace Prize in 1980 for her Christian charity work there.)   

Hinduism is an ancient polytheistic religion, consisting of multiple gods who were ultimately thought to be part of one god: Brahma, the supreme god of life.  The name "Hindu" comes from the word Hindustan, the Persian word for riverland; the birth of Hinduism was the merger of the Upanishadic and Vedic religious traditions in ancient India.  Muslim invaders of the A.D. 11th and 13th centuries began using the term "Hindu" to describe Indians from this region who were not Buddhists and who refused to convert to Islam.  In the A.D. 16th century European merchants and missionaries started using the term also.  But while Hinduism is not limited to one set of clear and specific beliefs, it does represent an overall belief system and today there are nearly one billion adherents to Hinduism in the world, nearly all of whom live in or emigrated from India.  (There are also significant Muslim and Christian populations in India today; Mother Theresa won a Nobel Peace Prize in 1980 for her Christian charity work there.)   

Hinduism focuses on "The Eternal Way," which means that certain spiritual principles are true for eternity, transcending what is man-made.  This is like a science of consciousness.  The advancement of knowledge is emphasized by Hinduism, and today many Indians can be found obtaining PhDs or medical degrees.  Many Indians (note that the term "Indian" in this lecture refers to South Asia) are entering engineering and similar high-tech professions, and American companies are gradually hiring more and more Indians for these jobs because of the high quality of their work and their willingness to work for less wages by American standards.  Politically, Hindus in the United States are more Republican than other immigrant groups.

Hinduism focuses on "The Eternal Way," which means that certain spiritual principles are true for eternity, transcending what is man-made.  This is like a science of consciousness.  The advancement of knowledge is emphasized by Hinduism, and today many Indians can be found obtaining PhDs or medical degrees.  Many Indians (note that the term "Indian" in this lecture refers to South Asia) are entering engineering and similar high-tech professions, and American companies are hiring more and more Indians for these jobs because of the high quality of their work and their willingness to work for less wages by American standards.  Politically, Hindus in the United States are more Republican than other immigrant groups.

Hinduism encourages meditation using yoga.  Historically, Hindus believed in reincarnation, a belief that spread even to the Greek philosopher Pythagoras in 560 B.C.  Visitors to India are impressed or surprised by seeing cows wandering about, disrupting traffic and commerce.  The expression "sacred cow" comes from the belief in reincarnation, and the view that a cow may be the reincarnation of one of your ancestors or deceased relatives.

Hinduism encourages meditation using yoga.  Historically, Hindus believed in reincarnation, a belief that spread even to the Greek philosopher Pythagoras in 560 B.C.  Visitors to India are impressed or surprised by seeing cows wandering about, disrupting traffic and commerce.  The expression "sacred cow" comes from the Indian belief in reincarnation, and the view that a cow may be the reincarnation of someone’s deceased relative.

The basic belief of Hinduism is in a cycle of life often represented by a dancing woman in a ring of fire, who is the god "Shiva" representing creation and destruction.  Other symbols are the god Brahma representing creation and the god Vishnu representing preservation or continuance of life.  In Hindu statutes a flat palm facing the onlooker represents peace, while a drum symbolizes creation.

The basic belief of Hinduism is in a cycle of life often represented by a dancing woman in a ring of fire, who is the god "Shiva" representing creation and destruction.  Other symbols are the god Brahma representing creation, and the god Vishnu representing preservation or continuance of life.  In Hindu statutes a flat palm facing the onlooker represents peace, while a drum symbolizes creation.

In 1966, the Supreme Court of India defined what Hinduism is for legal purposes:

In 1966, the Supreme Court of India defined what Hinduism is for legal purposes:

3. Belief in world rhythms: long periods of creation, maintenance and dissolution follow each other in endless succession.  

3. Belief in world rhythms: long periods of creation, maintenance and dissolution follow each other in endless succession.  

4. Belief in reincarnation (rebirth) and pre-existence.  Your instructor knows a Hindu who says his misfortune must be due to his having sinned in a prior life.

4. Belief in reincarnation (rebirth) and pre-existence.  Your teacher for this course knows a Hindu who says his misfortune must be due to his having sinned in a prior life.

5. Belief that there are many ways to salvation.  Many Hindus greatly respect Jesus, for example.

5. Belief that there are many ways to salvation.  Many Hindus greatly respect Jesus, for example.

Lacking from this modern legal definition is the caste system set forth in the Code of Manu, whereby the accumulation of a person's good deeds (or evil acts) in his prior lives (his "karma") determine whether he is born into a family at a higher or lower caste level, or even lower as an animal or plant.  Upon full compliance with the Hindu moral code, the person is released from the "wheel of life" and attains unity with Brahma (universal all).  This belief is known as "Moksha".  Obviously the caste system is politically incorrect today, with many Hindus believing in it privately but reluctant to speak about it publicly.

Lacking from this modern legal definition is the caste system set forth in the Code of Manu, whereby the accumulation of a person's good deeds (or evil acts) in his prior lives (his "karma") determine whether he is born into a family at a higher or lower caste level, or even lower as an animal or plant.  Upon full compliance with the Hindu moral code, the person is released from the "wheel of life" and attains unity with Brahma (universal all).  This belief is known as "Moksha".  Obviously the caste system is politically incorrect today, with many Hindus believing in it privately but reluctant to speak about it publicly.

The highest caste is the "Brahmans" (priests and scholars).  This term has been incorporated in a non-religious sense into English (spelled as "Brahmins") to mean wealthy, aloof New England families, like the 2004 Democratic Presidential candidate John Kerry's family.  The traditional goal of Hindus is to reach Brahma, or spiritual perfection, by observing dharma (DER-muh) (moral or religious duties of your caste).  Below the Brahmans in the Hindu case system are the Kshatriya (rulers), the Vaishya (peasants), and then the serfs (Shudra).  Below the lowest caste level are the "untouchables" or Harijans, who are slaves and outcasts.  As noted above, few talk publicly about the caste system any more because it is so politically incorrect.

The highest caste is the "Brahmans" (priests and scholars).  This term has been incorporated in a non-religious sense into English (spelled as "brahmins") to mean wealthy, aloof New England families, like the 2004 Democratic Presidential candidate John Kerry's family.  The traditional goal of Hindus is to reach Brahma, or spiritual perfection, by observing dharma (DER-muh) (moral or religious duties of your caste).  Below the Brahmans in the Hindu case system are the Kshatriya (rulers), the Vaishya (peasants), and then the Shudra (serfs).  Below the lowest caste level are the "untouchables" or Harijans, who are slaves and outcasts.  Few talk publicly about the caste system any more because it is so politically incorrect.

In Hindu society, a woman was generally treated like a dependent to be taken care of and supervised by her father, husband or brother.  Government was by a local prince or "raja", also spelled as "rajah".  The English word "raj" means reign.

In Hindu society, government was by a local prince or "raja", also spelled as "rajah".  The English word "raj" means reign.

The omission of the traditional caste system from the Indian Supreme Court's modern definition illustrates how Hinduism adapts to changing times (and political correctness).  This remarkable ability to adapt has helped Hinduism survive for thousands of years and become one of the oldest surviving religions.  For example, Hinduism survived the threat posed by the rival religion Buddhism simply by treating the founder of Buddhism like another god and adding him to the religion.  Hinduism has treated Christianity in a similar manner, by accepting Jesus as "a" God.  Today India is 82% Hindu.

The omission of the traditional caste system from the Indian Supreme Court's modern definition illustrates how Hinduism adapts to changing times.  ‘’’This remarkable ability to adapt has helped Hinduism survive for thousands of years and become one of the oldest surviving religions’’’.  For example, Hinduism survived the threat posed by the rival religion Buddhism simply by treating the founder of Buddhism like another god and adding him to the religion.  Hinduism has treated Christianity in a similar manner, by accepting Jesus as "a" God.  Today India is 82% Hindu.

   

   

Hinduism holds a special reverence for all living creatures, and violence against life is prohibited.  Abortion was traditionally rare in India, but some report that it has increased greatly in recent decades as the country is industrialized and influenced by Western atheistic beliefs.  The attitude towards women in Hinduism is of special respect in the family structure.  Women obeyed their husbands under Hinduism.  A much-criticized (but rare) practice in India was for a wife, after her husband's death, to throw herself on her husband's funeral pyre to die as a way of honoring him.  This is known as "sati" or "suttee" (suh-TEE).  Hinduism practices cremation of the deceased.

Hinduism holds a special reverence for all living creatures, and violence against life is prohibited.  Abortion was traditionally rare in India, but some report that it has increased greatly in recent decades as the country is industrialized and influenced by Western atheistic beliefs.  The attitude towards women in Hinduism is of special respect in the family structure.  Women obeyed their husbands under Hinduism.  A much-criticized (but rare) practice in India was for a wife, after her husband's death, to throw herself on her husband's funeral pyre to die as a way of honoring him.  This is known as "sati" or "suttee" (suh-TEE).  Hinduism practices cremation of the deceased.

=== Jainism ===

=== Jainism ===

Jainism is a branch of Hinduism that emphasizes the principle of non-violence towards all life.  Jainism requires strict vegetarianism, for example.  Jainism was founded by Mahavira (540-468 B.C.), who taught self-denial and non-violence against any form of life.  Jainism's strict requirements of self-denial caused it to lose popularity, but the religion remained strong and today has over 4 million adherents worldwide (including 7000 in the U.S.).  It influenced Gandhi later in India, and Ralph Waldo Emerson in the United States.   

Jainism is a branch of Hinduism that emphasizes the principle of non-violence towards all life.  Jainism requires strict vegetarianism, to avoid killing any living species.  Jainism was founded by Mahavira (540-468 B.C.), who taught self-denial and non-violence against any form of life.  Jainism's strict requirements of self-denial caused it to lose popularity, but the religion remained strong and today has over 4 million adherents worldwide (including 7000 in the U.S.).  It later influenced Gandhi in India, and Ralph Waldo Emerson in the United States.   

Once your instructor was approached for advice by a physician who is an adherent to Jainism, and your instructor first asked if the physician performed abortions because your instructor was not going to help him if he did.  But that question reflected a misunderstanding of Jainism by your instructor, because it strictly prohibits abortion and the taking of any life.

Your teacher for this course was once approached for advice by a physician who is an adherent to Jainism, and before agreeing to help him your teacher first wanted to make sure the physician did not perform any abortions.  It should have been obvious that physician did not perform any abortions: Jainism strictly prohibits the taking of any life.

Unlike Hinduism, Jainism rejects the authority of the Vedas, the sacred scriptures of Hinduism.

Unlike Hinduism, Jainism rejects the authority of the Vedas, the sacred scriptures of Hinduism.