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After the founder of the Church of England (King Henry VIII) died in 1547, there were three noteworthy monarchs: Elizabeth I, James I and Charles I.  Queen Elizabeth took the throne in 1558, about a decade after King Henry VIII, and remains the most popular English monarch in history.  She ruled for nearly 45 years, until her death in 1603, and had two remarkable accomplishments:  she deftly managed Parliament and many religious conflicts, and she crushed the massive Spanish Armada that attempted to invade England in 1588.  A Protestant who was eventually excommunicated by the Catholic Church, Elizabeth obtained the “Religious Settlement” from Parliament in 1559 that funded the Church of England and set many rules for it (like the ability of its clergy to marry) that remain to this day.  Queen Elizabeth’s successful rule is known as the “Elizabethan Age.”

After the founder of the Church of England (King Henry VIII) died in 1547, there were three noteworthy monarchs: Elizabeth I, James I and Charles I.  Queen Elizabeth took the throne in 1558, about a decade after King Henry VIII, and remains the most popular English monarch in history.  She ruled for nearly 45 years, until her death in 1603, and had two remarkable accomplishments:  she deftly managed Parliament and many religious conflicts, and she crushed the massive Spanish Armada that attempted to invade England in 1588.  A Protestant who was eventually excommunicated by the Catholic Church, Elizabeth obtained the “Religious Settlement” from Parliament in 1559 that funded the Church of England and set many rules for it (like the ability of its clergy to marry) that remain to this day.  Queen Elizabeth’s successful rule is known as the “Elizabethan Age.”

Queen Elizabeth was known as the “Virgin Queen” as she never married and practiced [[abstinence]]. It was during her reign that Sir Walter Raleigh received a charter to establish the first English settlement in North America.  This first charter named the region “Virginia” in 1584 in honor of the “Virgin Queen.” Notice how few Americans learn this origin of the name of the state of Virginia.<ref>http://www.e-referencedesk.com/resources/state-name/virginia.html</ref>

Queen Elizabeth was known as the “Virgin Queen” as she never married. It was during her reign that Sir Walter Raleigh received a charter to establish the first English settlement in North America.  This first charter named the region “Virginia” in 1584 in honor of the “Virgin Queen.”<ref>http://www.e-referencedesk.com/resources/state-name/virginia.html</ref>

Queen Elizabeth never married and had no heirs.  After her death in 1603, her cousin James Stuart, King James VI of Scotland, took the English throne as James I.  The King James Version of the Bible, first published in 1611, was the magnificent English translation funded by his reign.  This stunning work greatly influenced the development of the English language for centuries to come.  But unlike Elizabeth, James I fought frequently with Parliament.   

Queen Elizabeth never married and had no heirs.  After her death in 1603, her cousin James Stuart, King James VI of Scotland, took the English throne as James I.  The King James Version of the Bible, first published in 1611, was the magnificent English translation funded by his reign.  This stunning work greatly influenced the development of the English language for centuries to come.  But unlike Elizabeth, James I fought frequently with Parliament.   

It was during the reign of James I in 1605 that the “Gunpowder Plot” was discovered. It supposedly consisted of a conspiracy to assassinate the Anglican King James I and his ministers at the State Opening of Parliament by exploding of barrels of gunpowder placed in the cellar of the building. Amazingly, perhaps too amazing to be believed, the barrels of gunpowder were "discovered" just beforehand, and Catholic Guy Fawkes was executed along with other Catholics for an alleged conspiracy. The ''Oxford Dictionary of World History'' notes the possibility that the Protestant statesman Robert Cecil (who helped install James I to the throne) “manufactured the plot” to influence public opinion at a time of religious conflict.<ref>Oxford Dictionary of World History, p. 262 (paperback ed. 2001).</ref> English people commemorate this event annually on November 5th, with festivities that include bonfires, fireworks and burning effigies.

It was during the reign of James I in 1605 that the “Gunpowder Plot” was discovered. It supposedly consisted of a conspiracy to assassinate the Anglican King James I and his ministers at the State Opening of Parliament by exploding barrels of gunpowder placed in the cellar of the building. Amazingly, perhaps too amazing to be believed, the barrels of gunpowder were "discovered" just beforehand, and Catholic Guy Fawkes was executed along with other Catholics for an alleged conspiracy. The ''Oxford Dictionary of World History'' notes the possibility that the Protestant statesman Robert Cecil (who helped install James I to the throne) “manufactured the plot” to influence public opinion at a time of religious conflict.<ref>Oxford Dictionary of World History, p. 262 (paperback ed. 2001).</ref> English people commemorate this event annually on November 5th, with festivities that include bonfires, fireworks and the burning of effigies.

Charles I became the king in 1625 and conflicts worsened between the Crown and Parliament.  Charles I needed funding in 1628, but Parliament refused unless Charles signed the Petition of Right.  This important document would have limited the powers of the king in four significant ways.  The king could no longer imprison people without good reason, or force people to house soldiers in their private homes, or impose taxes without the consent of Parliament, or impose martial (military) law during peacetime.  The king’s power would be greatly weakened by this Petition.  Charles accepted the Petition, but refused to abide by it.

Charles I became the king in 1625 and conflicts worsened between the Crown and Parliament.  Charles I needed funding in 1628, but Parliament refused unless Charles signed the Petition of Right.  This important document would have limited the powers of the king in four significant ways.  The king could no longer imprison people without good reason, or force people to house soldiers in their private homes, or impose taxes without the consent of Parliament, or impose martial (military) law during peacetime.  The king’s power would be greatly weakened by this Petition.  Charles accepted the Petition, but refused to abide by it.

Charles also refused to give religious freedom to Puritans in England and Presbyterians in Scotland.  This and a dispute over the power of the royalty led to the religious English Civil War from 1642 to 1649, whereupon the Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell emerged victorious.  King Charles was then tried and publicly executed.  This was the first execution of a king by his own people in history, setting an example that future revolutions imitated.

Charles also refused to give religious freedom to Puritans in England and Presbyterians in Scotland.  This and a dispute over the power of the royalty led to the '''religious English Civil War from 1642 to 1649, whereupon the Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell emerged victorious'''.  King Charles was then tried and publicly executed.  This was the first execution of a king by his own people in history, setting an example that future revolutions imitated.

An example of the harsh religious conflict in England under Charles I was the experience of the Puritan William Prynne (1600-69).  He wrote and distributed pamphlets, including his famous pamphlet Histrio Mastix (1632) that attacked stage-plays liked by Queen Henrietta Maria.  Prynne’s writings caused him to be tried before the monarch’s Star Chamber and, of course, he was convicted in that unfair tribunal. (To this day the term a “Star Chamber” refers to an inherently unjust proceeding.)  The sentence of Prynne in 1634 was an extremely harsh life imprisonment and also the cropping of his ears (removal of part of his ears to disfigure him).   

An example of the harsh religious conflict in England under Charles I was the experience of the Puritan William Prynne (1600-69).  He wrote and distributed pamphlets, including his famous pamphlet ''Histrio Mastix'' (1632) that attacked stage-plays liked by Queen Henrietta Maria.  Prynne’s writings caused him to be tried before the monarch’s Star Chamber and, of course, he was convicted in that unfair tribunal. (To this day the term a “Star Chamber” refers to an inherently unjust proceeding.)  The sentence of Prynne in 1634 was an extremely harsh life imprisonment and also the cropping of his ears (removal of part of his ears to disfigure him).   

But Prynne, even with his ears cropped, continued to write pamphlets.  In 1637 he was further punished by branding the remainder of his ears.  In 1640, the Long Parliament limited the absolute power of the monarch and freed Prynne.  He was then even elected to Parliament in 1648.  But in December 1648 the English army led by the Puritan Colonel Thomas Pride) held a coup that excluded more than 100 Charles-friendly members of Parliament from the House of Commons.  That was known as “Pride’s Purge.”  The remaining “rump” Parliament then assembled without these excluded members, and this allowed the execution of Charles I.  With all the fighting and religious persecution, it is easy to see why some Puritans decided to come to America during this time rather than stay in England!

But Prynne, even with his ears cropped, continued to write pamphlets.  In 1637 he was further punished by branding the remainder of his ears.  In 1640, the Long Parliament limited the absolute power of the monarch and freed Prynne.  He was then even elected to Parliament in 1648.  But in December 1648 the English army (led by the Puritan Colonel Thomas Pride) held a coup that excluded more than 100 Charles-friendly members of Parliament from the House of Commons.  That was known as “Pride’s Purge.”  The remaining “rump” Parliament then assembled without these excluded members, and this allowed the execution of Charles I.  With all the fighting and religious persecution, it is easy to see why some Puritans decided to come to America during this time rather than stay in England!

After defeating Charles I, Oliver Cromwell initially founded the “Commonwealth” (1649-53), which was a republican form of government.  But like other future revolutionaries, Cromwell then decided simply to rule as a military dictator with the title of Lord Protector (but not a “king”), which he did until his death in 1658.  Most revolutions simply replace one form of dictatorship with another.  The shining exception was the American Revolution, as its leader (George Washington) voluntarily gave up his power for the good of the people.

After defeating Charles I, Oliver Cromwell initially founded the “Commonwealth” (1649-53), which was a republican form of government.  But like other future revolutionaries, Cromwell then decided simply to rule as a military dictator with the title of Lord Protector (but not a “king”), which he did until his death in 1658.  Most revolutions simply replace one form of dictatorship with another.  The shining exception was the American Revolution, as its leader (George Washington) voluntarily gave up his power for the good of the people.

Today the term “Great Britain” means England, Scotland and Wales, which share the same large island (see right).  It is “Great" to distinguish it from France's Brittania Minor (more simply, “Brittany”).  

Today the term “Great Britain” means England, Scotland and Wales, which share the same large island (see right).  It is “Great" to distinguish it from France's Brittania Minor (more simply, “Brittany”).  

The term “United Kingdom” refers to the combination (union) of “Great Britain” and “Northern Ireland,” which is part of the island of Ireland.  There is conflict to this day between Unionists, who are mostly Protestant, and Nationalists, who are mostly Catholic, as to whether Northern Ireland should remain part of the United Kingdom on the one hand or be united with the Republic of Ireland (Northern Ireland and the Republic share the same island) on the other. This dispute still very occasionally spills over into violence.

The term “United Kingdom” (UK) refers to the combination (union) of “Great Britain” and “Northern Ireland,” which is part of the island of Ireland.  There is conflict to this day between Unionists, who are mostly Protestant, and Nationalists, who are mostly Catholic, as to whether Northern Ireland should remain part of the United Kingdom, or be united with the Republic of Ireland (Northern Ireland and the Republic share the same island).

The United Kingdom was formed in 1800 in response to the movement towards independence by Ireland. Although Ireland had a large majority of Catholics at the time and the other countries of the UK had even larger Protestant majorities, many leaders of the early Irish independence movement were Protestant. The movement culminated in the [[Easter Rising]] in 1916 and the war for independence for Ireland in 1920s.

The United Kingdom was formed in 1800 in response to the movement towards independence by Ireland. Although Ireland had a large majority of Catholics at the time and the other countries of the UK had even larger Protestant majorities, many leaders of the early Irish independence movement were Protestant. The movement culminated in the [[Easter Rising]] in 1916 and the war for independence for Ireland in 1920s.

==Age of Revolution==

==Age of Revolution==

The Age of Revolution is a general time period when revolutions swept the world to overthrow kings (monarchies) and establish constitutional forms of government.  Some historians, focusing on the major revolutions that overthrew monarchies, consider the late 1700s to be the Age of Revolution, including the American (1776-1783) and French Revolutions (1789) and its subsequent Reign of Terror (1793-94).  Other historians, seeing continued occurrence of revolutions worldwide after 1800, describe the period as being from 1776 to 1848, a year in which there were many unsuccessful revolutions and Karl Marx wrote the inspiration for future revolutions, The Communist Manifesto.

The Age of Revolution is a general time period when revolutions swept the world to overthrow kings (monarchies) and establish constitutional forms of government.  Some historians, focusing on the major revolutions that overthrew monarchies, consider the late 1700s to be the Age of Revolution, including the American (1776-1783) and French Revolutions (1789) and its subsequent Reign of Terror (1793-94).  Other historians, seeing continued occurrence of revolutions worldwide after 1800, describe the period as being from 1776 to 1848, a year in which there were many unsuccessful revolutions and Karl Marx wrote the inspiration for future revolutions, ''The Communist Manifesto''.

A “revolution” is itself a controversial idea, and has little or no basis in Christianity.  The ancient Greeks were entirely opposed to the idea of a revolution, and thought it occurred only when the morality and religious values of a society had decayed.  In the Middle Ages, revolution was unknown and armed revolt against one’s society was unacceptable.  Religious authority was strong and social order was desired.  Armed revolt by Christians against their government leaders did not occur in ancient Rome, when the emperors were as cruel as possible, and such revolts remained rare or non-existent for over 1600 years.  It was not until the early 1700s that the English language developed the word “revolution” to mean an armed overthrow of a government.

A “revolution” is itself a controversial idea, and has little or no basis in Christianity.  The ancient Greeks were entirely opposed to the idea of a revolution, and thought it occurred only when the morality and religious values of a society had decayed.  In the Middle Ages, revolution was unknown and armed revolt against one’s society was unacceptable.  Religious authority was strong and social order was desired.  Armed revolt by Christians against their government leaders did not occur in ancient Rome, when the emperors were as cruel as possible, and such revolts remained rare or non-existent for over 1600 years.  It was not until the early 1700s that the English language developed the word “revolution” to mean an armed overthrow of a government.

===America===

===America===

The American Revolution, beginning with the Declaration of Independence in 1776, was led by a small percentage of the colonists.  There were just as many Loyalists (pro-British) as Patriots (pro-revolutionaries).  Like the French Revolution discussed below, the American Revolution was instigated by an educated middle class.  The ideas were powerful in the Declaration of Independence, which 33-year-old Thomas Jefferson drafted with other Founders using the [[Virginia Declaration of Rights]], which had been drafted by Founder George Mason.  Invoking the authority of God frequently throughout the document, the Declaration contains the most striking legal statement of all time:  “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.”  The phrase “that all men are created equal” was original to the Declaration of Independence and was quoted frequently by Abraham Lincoln (e.g., in his Gettysburg Address) and by other future Americans.

The American Revolution, beginning with the Declaration of Independence in 1776, was led by a small percentage of the colonists.  There were just as many Loyalists (pro-British) as Patriots (pro-revolutionaries).  Like the French Revolution discussed below, the American Revolution was instigated by an educated middle class.  The ideas were powerful in the Declaration of Independence, which 33-year-old Thomas Jefferson drafted with other Founders based on the [[Virginia Declaration of Rights]], which had been drafted by Founder George Mason.  Invoking the authority of God frequently throughout the document, the Declaration contains the most striking legal statement of all time:  '''“We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.”''' The phrase “that all men are created equal” was original to the Declaration of Independence and was quoted frequently by Abraham Lincoln (e.g., in his Gettysburg Address) and by other future Americans.

The Declaration of Independence drew upon Christianity and the Enlightenment English philosopher John Locke.  In his famous work “Two Treatises on Government” (1690), Locke declared that all men have the natural (inalienable) rights of “life, liberty and estate (property).”  Adam Smith, the great economist, modified this to be “life, liberty and the pursuit of property.” Notably the Declaration of Independence does not emphasize a right to pursue property, however, instead speaking in favor of pursuit of “happiness”.  

The Declaration of Independence drew upon Christianity and the Enlightenment English philosopher John Locke.  In his famous work “Two Treatises on Government” (1690), Locke declared that all men have the natural (inalienable) rights of “life, liberty and estate (property).”  Adam Smith, the great economist, modified this to be “life, liberty and the pursuit of property.”   

Locke also wrote that government exists to defend our natural rights, and when government fails to do so then it may be rightfully overthrown.  Locke built on the concept of a “social contract” first proposed by Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), who felt that government was a contract by which people gave up some rights to government to obtain protection and order in return.  When this social contract is violated by government, as when it fails to defend our natural rights, then Locke felt that rejecting the authority of government was justified.  This logic was embraced by the Declaration of Independence by declaring that the colonies were right to break away from the King of England because he failed to uphold the social contract.  The Declaration said: “That to secure these [inalienable] rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed,—That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government ….”  And the Patriots did “abolish” English rule here, leading to the creation of the United States.

Locke also wrote that government exists to defend our natural rights, and when government fails to do so then it may be rightfully overthrown.  Locke built on the concept of a “social contract” first proposed by Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679), who felt that government was a contract by which people gave up some rights to government to obtain protection and order in return.  When this social contract is violated by government, as when it fails to defend our natural rights, then Locke felt that rejecting the authority of government was justified.  This logic was embraced by the Declaration of Independence by declaring that the colonies were right to break away from the King of England because he failed to uphold the social contract.  The Declaration said: “That to secure these [inalienable] rights, Governments are instituted among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed,—That whenever any Form of Government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new Government ….”  And the Patriots did “abolish” English rule here, leading to the creation of the United States.

When the First and Second Estates refused this request by the Third Estate, the Third Estate left and formed a new National Assembly.  When the Third Estate was locked out of its meeting place, it met on a tennis court and took the “Tennis Court Oath” to draft a new French constitution.

When the First and Second Estates refused this request by the Third Estate, the Third Estate left and formed a new National Assembly.  When the Third Estate was locked out of its meeting place, it met on a tennis court and took the “Tennis Court Oath” to draft a new French constitution.

Chaos and violence soon hit the streets.  On July 14, 1789 (“Bastille Day”), French peasants stormed the large Paris prison known as Bastille, freeing the inmates.  The Great Fear or panic resulted, as riots occurred and peasants proceeded to burn wealthy homes.  Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, were forced from their home in Versailles by a riot of women over the high price of bread.  In a classic example of class warfare that can be seen even today, people accused the privileged Antoinette of responding unsympathetically to the lack of bread for the peasants by declaring, “Let them eat cake!”  But cake was a sensible substitute for bread in times of need, and it is doubtful Antoinette ever said that anyway.

Chaos and violence soon hit the streets.  '''On July 14, 1789 (“Bastille Day”), French peasants stormed the large Paris prison known as Bastille, freeing the inmates'''.  The Great Fear or panic resulted, as riots occurred and peasants proceeded to burn wealthy homes.  Louis XVI and his wife, Marie Antoinette, were forced from their home in Versailles by a riot of women over the high price of bread.  In an example of the political tactics of class warfare that are used even today, enemies of the privileged Antoinette accused her of responding unsympathetically to the lack of bread for the peasants by declaring, “Let them eat cake!”  But when there is a shortage of bread, cake is a sensible substitute!

By then the French Revolution was in full swing.  The National Assembly approved the “Declaration of the Rights of Man,” which combined ideas of the American Declaration of Independence with some Enlightenment concepts.  The result of this combination was a liberal document guaranteeing more to the people than a government could or should provide.

By then the French Revolution was in full swing.  The National Assembly approved the “Declaration of the Rights of Man,” which combined ideas of the American Declaration of Independence with some Enlightenment concepts.  The result of this combination was a liberal document guaranteeing more to the people than a government could provide:

:Unlike the American declaration that “all men are created equal,” the French version declared that “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.”<ref>http://www.hrcr.org/docs/frenchdec.html</ref>  Unlike the American declaration that all men have inalienable rights of “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness,” the French version declared that all men have natural rights of “liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.”  Some of the French declarations seem silly, like this one:  “Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law.”  What is the meaning of a freedom if it is arbitrarily limited by undefined “abuses of this freedom”?

:Unlike the American declaration that “all men are created equal,” the French version declared that “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights. Social distinctions may be founded only upon the general good.”<ref>http://www.hrcr.org/docs/frenchdec.html</ref>  Unlike the American declaration that all men have inalienable rights of “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness,” the French version declared that all men have natural rights of “liberty, property, security and resistance to oppression.”  Some of the French declarations seem silly, like this one:  “Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law.”  What is the meaning of a freedom if it is arbitrarily limited by undefined “abuses of this freedom”?

Meanwhile, Prussia and Austria were at war with one another, and Prussia offered to help the French King Louis XVI and his royal family.  In response, in August 1792, the French revolutionaries imprisoned the king and his family.

Meanwhile, Prussia and Austria were at war with one another, and Prussia offered to help the French King Louis XVI and his royal family.  In response, in August 1792, the French revolutionaries imprisoned the king and his family.

A new National Convention replaced the Legislative Assembly and abolished the monarchy in order to establish a republic in 1792, which gave all adult males the right to vote.  A radical political group called the Jacobins gained power, led by Georges Danton and Jean Paul Marat.  Under the influence of the Jacobins, the National Convention used the guillotine to execute Louis XVI in January 1793.  By this time many countries, including Great Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, Prussia and Austria, had formed the First Coalition to prevent the violence in France from spreading outside.  The National Convention responded by drafting people into an army.  Historians claim that women were drafted too, but that is a dubious claim.

A new National Convention replaced the Legislative Assembly and abolished the monarchy in order to establish a republic in 1792, which gave all adult males the right to vote.  A radical political group called the Jacobins gained power, led by Georges Danton and Jean Paul Marat.  Under the influence of the Jacobins, the National Convention used the guillotine to execute Louis XVI in January 1793.  By this time many countries, including Great Britain, Spain, the Netherlands, Prussia and Austria, had formed the First Coalition to prevent the violence in France from spreading outside.  The National Convention responded by drafting people into an army.  Historians claim that women were drafted too, but that may be an exaggeration.

   

   

The execution of Louis XVI led almost immediately to the Reign of Terror.  Maximilian Robespierre, head of the Committee of Public Safety, proceeded to guillotine numerous alleged enemies, including Marie Antoinette.  In a classic illustration of Jesus’s teaching that “he who lives by the sword dies by the sword,” Jacobin leaders Georges Danton (a fiery orator) was guillotined, and Jean-Paul Marat (a scientist) was stabbed to death in his bathtub.  Eventually Robespierre himself was guillotined in 1794, and the Reign of Terror ended with his death.

The execution of Louis XVI led almost immediately to the Reign of Terror.  Maximilian Robespierre, head of the Committee of Public Safety, proceeded to guillotine numerous alleged enemies, including Marie Antoinette.  In a classic illustration of Jesus’s teaching that “he who lives by the sword dies by the sword,” Jacobin leaders Georges Danton (a fiery orator) was guillotined, and Jean-Paul Marat (a scientist) was stabbed to death in his bathtub.  Eventually Robespierre himself was guillotined in 1794, and the Reign of Terror ended with his death.

At last the government of France was in the hands of a legislature, and an executive branch of five men called the Directory.  The Directory picked a young, highly successful military genius named Napoleon to lead the French army.  The very next day Napoleon seized all power in France as its dictator, in November 1799.

At last the government of France was in the hands of a legislature, and an executive branch of five men called the Directory.  The Directory picked a young, highly successful military genius named Napoleon to lead the French army.  '''The very next day Napoleon seized all power in France as its dictator, in November 1799'''.

The influence of the French Revolution was immense throughout the western hemisphere, as other peoples felt that they, too, could rise up against their rulers and defeat them.  Historians credit the French Revolution with spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment, limiting the power of nobility and clergy, and ending an absolute monarchy.  But many who supported the French Revolution in its beginning (including Thomas Jefferson) were horrified by where it led, including numerous executions and terror.  Some would say that France never fully recovered, as the French Revolution unleashed a hostility towards Christianity that continues to this day in France.  Islam has recently risen in power there.

The influence of the French Revolution was immense throughout the western hemisphere, as other peoples felt that they, too, could rise up against their rulers and defeat them.  Historians credit the French Revolution with spreading the ideas of the Enlightenment, limiting the power of nobility and clergy, and ending an absolute monarchy.  But many who supported the French Revolution in its beginning (including Thomas Jefferson) were horrified by where it led, including numerous executions and terror.  Some would say that France never fully recovered, as the French Revolution unleashed a hostility towards Christianity that continues to this day in France.

===Napoleon’s Empire===

===Napoleon’s Empire===

The primary motivation of the Congress of Vienna was to prevent French aggression in the future, or any repetition of what Napoleon had done.  Restoration of a balance of power would help protect the other nations and provide for peace in Europe for the future.  There were also other goals for this meeting.  Royal families feared revolutions in their own nations similar to what France had gone through with its revolution.  In other words, the monarchies wanted “legitimacy”.

The primary motivation of the Congress of Vienna was to prevent French aggression in the future, or any repetition of what Napoleon had done.  Restoration of a balance of power would help protect the other nations and provide for peace in Europe for the future.  There were also other goals for this meeting.  Royal families feared revolutions in their own nations similar to what France had gone through with its revolution.  In other words, the monarchies wanted “legitimacy”.

In addition to the Concert of Europe described above, the Congress also adopted these specific changes to the map of Europe:

In addition to the Concert of Europe described above, the Congress of Vienna also adopted these specific changes to the map of Europe:

# Gave legitimacy to the monarchies (royal families)

# Gave legitimacy to the monarchies (royal families)

===Haiti===

===Haiti===

The first Spanish colony in the New World was the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean, which was one of Christopher Columbus’s first discoveries.  Today Hispaniola has two countries separated by mountains:  its eastern two-thirds is the Dominican Republic, while its western one-third is Haiti.  The Dominican Republic has produced many great baseball players, including Albert Pujols, Sammy Sosa, Pedro Martinez, Jose Reyes and Manny Ramirez.

The first Spanish colony in the New World was the island of Hispaniola in the Caribbean, which was one of Christopher Columbus’s initial discoveries.  Today Hispaniola has two countries separated by mountains:  its eastern two-thirds is the Dominican Republic, while its western one-third is Haiti.  The Dominican Republic has produced many great baseball players, including Albert Pujols, Sammy Sosa, Pedro Martinez, Jose Reyes and Manny Ramirez.

In the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697, Spain ceded control of the western third of Hispaniola to France, which established a colony named Saint Dominique (also spelled as “Saint-Domingue”).  A hundred years later, this colony (now Haiti) became famous for several reasons:  (1) it became the first independent black republic, (2) it was the only nation formed based on a successful slave revolt, and (3) it was the second colony after the United States to declare its independence in the New World, on Jan. 1, 1804.  In 2004, Haiti also had a revolution, or uprising.

In the Treaty of Ryswick in 1697, Spain ceded control of the western third of Hispaniola to France, which established a colony named Saint Dominique (also spelled as “Saint-Domingue”).  A hundred years later, this colony (now Haiti) became famous for several reasons:  (1) it became the first independent black republic, (2) it was the only nation formed based on a successful slave revolt, and (3) it was the second colony after the United States to declare its independence in the New World, on Jan. 1, 1804.  In 2004, Haiti also had a revolution, or uprising.

An Indian governor named Benito Juarez redistributed land to the poor and separated church and state.  He was exiled by Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, who was the president of Mexico four times following the revolution against Spain.  During his rule, Santa Anna was unable to stop Texas from seceding from Mexico in 1845, an act which fueled the war between Mexico and the United States.  In 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought an end to this Mexican War, granting the United States Southwest territories including California and New Mexico.  Benito Juarez again rose to power in 1861, and strongly opposed the French occupation of Mexico in 1862, and especially the Austrian archduke Maximilian.   

An Indian governor named Benito Juarez redistributed land to the poor and separated church and state.  He was exiled by Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, who was the president of Mexico four times following the revolution against Spain.  During his rule, Santa Anna was unable to stop Texas from seceding from Mexico in 1845, an act which fueled the war between Mexico and the United States.  In 1848, the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought an end to this Mexican War, granting the United States Southwest territories including California and New Mexico.  Benito Juarez again rose to power in 1861, and strongly opposed the French occupation of Mexico in 1862, and especially the Austrian archduke Maximilian.   

When the French left Mexico in 1867, Juarez was followed by dictator Porfirio Diaz, of Indian descent, who encouraged building projects and economic growth but unsuccessfully distributed land and failed to resolve problems among the working class such as low wages.  Diaz found opposition in Francisco Madero, who founded the “Anti-Reelection Party” and was a firm supporter of democracy.  Madero called for an uprising in 1910, marking the beginning of the Mexican Revolution, which lasted until 1917.  Other prominent figures of the Mexican Revolution included cowboy Francisco “Pancho” Villa, and peasant leader Emiliano Zapata.  Control of Mexico often changed hands and many were assassinated, including Madero, who was then replaced by Diaz’s ally General Victoriano Huerta, who then fled and was replaced by Venustiano Carranza.  Carranza met his downfall after tricking and killing Emiliano Zapata in 1919, which turned everyone against Carranza.  He attempted to flee Mexico, but was killed.  These events marked the end of the Mexican Revolution.   

When the French left Mexico in 1867, Juarez was succeeded by dictator Porfirio Diaz, of Indian descent, who encouraged building projects and economic growth but unsuccessfully distributed land and failed to resolve problems among the working class such as low wages.  Diaz found opposition in Francisco Madero, who founded the “Anti-Reelection Party” and was a firm supporter of democracy.  Madero called for an uprising in 1910, marking the beginning of the Mexican Revolution, which lasted until 1917.  Other prominent figures of the Mexican Revolution included cowboy Francisco “Pancho” Villa, and peasant leader Emiliano Zapata.  Control of Mexico often changed hands and many were assassinated, including Madero, who was then replaced by Diaz’s ally General Victoriano Huerta, who then fled and was replaced by Venustiano Carranza.  Carranza met his downfall after tricking and killing Emiliano Zapata in 1919, which turned everyone against Carranza.  He attempted to flee Mexico, but was killed.  These events marked the end of the Mexican Revolution.   

A Mexican constitution was established as a result of the Revolution, which increased the rights of workers and in some cases the rights of women, and strengthened the land redistribution system.  In 1920, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (in Spanish, the Partido Revolucionario Institucional or PRI) was organized.  It came to power in 1929 and was the most prominent party in Mexico for the remainder of the 20th century.  The IRP gave politicians in Mexico City control, and many of the Mexican constitutional provisions were disregarded by PRI presidents.

A Mexican constitution was established as a result of the Revolution, which increased the rights of workers and in some cases the rights of women, and strengthened the land redistribution system.  In 1920, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (in Spanish, the Partido Revolucionario Institucional or PRI) was organized.  It came to power in 1929 and was the most prominent party in Mexico for the remainder of the 20th century.  The IRP gave politicians in Mexico City control, and many of the Mexican constitutional provisions were disregarded by PRI presidents.

In the early 1800s, art (including music) and literature underwent “revolutions” similar to the political ones.  Romanticism was the major artistic movement, reflecting an emphasis on thoughts, feelings and nature.  Lord Byron was a leading romanticist who fought for the independence of Greece.  This emphasis on feelings mirrored a political romanticism that promoted democracy and the needs of the “common man,” or everyday person.

In the early 1800s, art (including music) and literature underwent “revolutions” similar to the political ones.  Romanticism was the major artistic movement, reflecting an emphasis on thoughts, feelings and nature.  Lord Byron was a leading romanticist who fought for the independence of Greece.  This emphasis on feelings mirrored a political romanticism that promoted democracy and the needs of the “common man,” or everyday person.

In music, one of the greatest composers in the history of the world burst onto the scene in the early 1800s:  Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827).  He revolutionized instrumental music and took it to new heights never before thought possible.  His achievement was all the more remarkable because he became totally deaf before the age of 40, and before he composed his greatest works.  A German like many of the great composers, Beethoven’s works capture an intensity and expressive emotion that surpassed even vocal music.  It was Beethoven’s great work that led an English critic to declare, “All arts aspire to the condition of music.”

In music, one of the greatest composers in the history of the world burst onto the scene in the early 1800s:  Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827).  He revolutionized instrumental music and took it to new heights never before thought possible.  His achievement was all the more remarkable because he became totally deaf before the age of 40, and before he composed his greatest works.  A German like many of the great composers, Beethoven’s works capture an intensity and expressive emotion that surpassed even vocal music.  It was Beethoven’s great work that led this observation: “All arts aspire to the condition of music.”

In the late 1800s, impressionism moved [[painting]] further away from its traditions.  It began in France and continued into the 1900s.  The chief feature of impressionism was to paint the transient effects of color and light, and attempt to capture a fleeting image or “impression”.  The feeling of an image was emphasized more than the detail (see right).  Major impressionistic painters included Edouard Manet, Claude Monet, Pierre Auguste Renoir and Paul Cezanne.  Manet, Monet, Renoir and others began emphasizing color and lighting as early as the late 1860s.  They often painted landscapes, and insisted on remaining outdoors until completion of the work, unlike predecessors who preferred to complete such work in the studio.  Renoir, for example, is known for brilliance of color, intimate charm in his subjects (some of which are not family-friendly), and a harmony of his lines.   

In the late 1800s, impressionism moved [[painting]] further away from its traditions.  It began in France and continued into the 1900s.  The chief feature of impressionism was to paint the transient effects of color and light, and attempt to capture a fleeting image or “impression”.  The feeling of an image was emphasized more than the detail (see right).  Major impressionistic painters included Edouard Manet, Claude Monet, Pierre Auguste Renoir and Paul Cezanne.  Manet, Monet, Renoir and others began emphasizing color and lighting as early as the late 1860s.  They often painted landscapes, and insisted on remaining outdoors until completion of the work, unlike predecessors who preferred to complete such work in the studio.  Renoir, for example, is known for brilliance of color, intimate charm in his subjects (some of which are not family-friendly), and a harmony of his lines.