Changes

*big financial donors to "Super PAC"s

*big financial donors to "Super PAC"s

What is missing from the above list?  Political parties, which have an enormous influence on elections.  And there is another category in shaping our society that sometimes more important than elections:  trials in court.  We look at those two very different pieces of the overall puzzle in this lecture.

What is missing from the above list?  Political parties, which have an enormous influence on elections.  And there is another category in shaping our society that is sometimes more important than elections:  trials in court.  We look at those two very different pieces of the overall puzzle in this lecture.

== Political Parties ==

== Political Parties ==

Remember that politics is a team sport, and the biggest teams are the political parties: Republicans and Democrats.  There are third parties too, such as the Constitution Party, the Libertarian Party, the Green Party, and others.  But they seem to be losing strength as time goes by.

Remember that politics is a team sport, and the biggest teams are the political parties: Republicans and Democrats.  There are third parties too, such as the Constitution Party, the Libertarian Party, the Green Party, and others.  But they seem to be losing strength as time goes by.

The Republican and Democrat Parties are controlled by a small group of people who meet in what was once called the "smoke-filled room," which in the old says was a few powerful people smoking cigars who made all the important political decisions within each political party.  Then the orders go out to everyone else in the party to obey, or else lose support from the party for reelection.  Today people do not smoke like that, but the political parties still are controlled by very few people.

The Republican and Democratic Parties are controlled by a small group of people who meet in what was once called the "smoke-filled room," which in the old days was a few powerful people smoking cigars who made all the important political decisions within each political party.  Then the orders go out to everyone else in the party to obey, or else lose support from the party for reelection.  Today most people do not smoke, but the political parties still are controlled by very few people.

At the top of the party structure is its national committee.  For the Republicans, it is the Republican National Committee, which raises enormous sums of money and otherwise sets direction for the party.  Its Chairman, Reince Priebus, can be seen frequently on television news programs stating the views of the Republican Party.

At the top of the party structure is its national committee.  For the Republicans, it is the Republican National Committee, which raises enormous sums of money and otherwise sets direction for the party.  Its Chairman, Reince Priebus, can be seen frequently on television news programs stating the views of the Republican Party.

Whom the party decides to "back" (support) can have a big effect on who wins.  There are some exceptions, however.  The folks in control of the Republican Party never liked Ron Paul, and tried to defeat him when he ran every two years for reelection in Congress.  But Ron Paul has always been very popular among his "constituents" (the people whom a politician represents, such as residents in a congressional district represented by the congressman).  In most cases, however, when a political party's leaders decide one person should win the party's nomination rather than someone else, then that person favored by the party insiders does win.  That is because he usually wins more endorsements and obtains more financial support for his campaign if his party "bosses" support him.

Whom the party decides to "back" (support) can have a big effect on who wins.  There are some exceptions, however.  The folks in control of the Republican Party never liked Ron Paul, and tried to defeat him when he ran every two years for reelection in Congress.  But Ron Paul has always been very popular among his "constituents" (the people whom a politician represents, such as residents in the congressional district represented by the congressman).  In most cases, however, when a political party's leaders decide a particular candidate should win the party's nomination rather than someone else, then that person favored by the party insiders typically does win.  That is because he usually wins more endorsements and obtains more financial support for his campaign if his party "bosses" support him.

Let's learn more about the Republican Party Committee, which is the formal structure of the Republican Party.  (The Democratic Party Committee works in a similar way.)

Let's learn more about the Republican Party Committee, which is the formal structure of the Republican Party.  (The Democratic Party Committee works in a similar way.)

== Next: A Look at the Judiciary ==

== Next: A Look at the Judiciary ==

With all the talk about politics and elections in the media, it is easy to think that elections are the only events that shape the future of America.  But do not forget that elections directly affect only two out of three branches of government in the federal (and New Jersey) government.  Federal judges never stand for election, and their work is done independently from the political process.  They are nominated by the President and confirmed by the U.S. Senate, but they still decide cases for decades afterward.

With all the talk about politics and elections in the media, it is easy to think that elections are the only events that shape the future of America.  But do not forget that elections directly affect only two out of three branches of government in the federal (and New Jersey) government.  Federal judges never stand for election, and their work is done independently from the political process.  Federal judges are nominated by the President and confirmed by the U.S. Senate, and in New Jersey the judges are nominated by the Governor and confirmed by the NJ Senate, but these judges continue to decide cases for many decades afterward without any reason to be concerned about elections.

Judges, courts and trials are not what most people think about when they hear the term "government", but courts and public trials may be as important in deciding the future of our nation.  Elected politicians like to avoid the difficult issues, leaving it to courts to decide what really matters.

Judges, courts and trials are not what most people think about when they hear the term "government", but courts and public trials may be as important in deciding the future of our nation.  Elected politicians like to avoid the difficult issues, leaving it to courts to decide what really matters.

The most important trials in Anglo-American history have been by juries, and they have decided many of the fundamental issues that we take for granted. In trials, there are rules of evidence that limit what can be said or claim.  Most of what politicians says, and much of what is taught in public school, would not be considered reliable enough to present in a court of law at a trial.  Demagoguery is not allowed; neither is most types of "hearsay", which is repeating what someone else said.  The basic rules of evidence have developed over hundreds of years to promote a truthful result.   

The most important trials in Anglo-American history have been by juries, and they have decided many of the fundamental issues that we take for granted. In trials, there are rules of evidence that limit what can be said or claimed.  Most of what politicians says, and much of what is taught in public school, would not be considered reliable enough to present in a court of law at a trial.  Demagoguery is not allowed; neither is most types of "hearsay", which is repeating what someone heard somewhere else.  The basic rules of evidence have developed over hundreds of years to promote a truthful result.   

The Salem Witch Trials, which are not on this list (but perhaps they should be), reached results considered to be unjust because witnesses were allowed to say in court that they had a dream or vision ("spectral evidence") convincing them that the defendant was guilty.  Today that would be prohibited by rules of evidence.

The Salem Witch Trials, which are not on this list (but perhaps they should be), reached results considered to be unjust because witnesses were allowed to say in court that they had a dream or vision ("spectral evidence") convincing them that the defendant was guilty.  Today that would be prohibited by rules of evidence.

<br>10.  President Bill Clinton (1999)

<br>10.  President Bill Clinton (1999)

How many of those trials can you describe? All were trial by jury. For the impeachment trials (3, 4, and 10), the "jury" was the entire U.S. Senate.

How many of those jury trials can you describe?  For the impeachment trials (3, 4, and 10), the "jury" was the entire U.S. Senate.

Both Thomas Jefferson and John Adams felt strongly that jury trials were the best defense against government.  Thomas Jefferson considered “trial by jury as the only anchor ever yet imagined by man, by which a government can be held to the principles of its constitution.”  John Adams said it was a jury’s “duty ... to find the verdict according to his own best understanding, judgment, and conscience, though in direct opposition to the direction of the court.”

Both Thomas Jefferson and John Adams felt strongly that jury trials were the best defense against government.  Thomas Jefferson considered “trial by jury as the only anchor ever yet imagined by man, by which a government can be held to the principles of its constitution.”  John Adams said it was a jury’s “duty ... to find the verdict according to his own best understanding, judgment, and conscience, though in direct opposition to the direction of the court.”

Half of these important trials resulted in convictions; the other half resulted in acquittals.  Here is my summary of the cases and their influence:

Half of these important trials resulted in convictions; the other half resulted in acquittals.  Here is my summary of the cases and their influence:

'''1.'''  '''William Penn''' joined the Quakers in London, a religion disliked by the King.  In 1670, Penn held a worship service and was arrested allegedly for disturbing the King’s peace   At trial, the jurors heard testimony and the judge, as is still the custom, delivered jury instructions prior to its deliberations.  The jury instructions included an order to find the Penn guilty.  

'''1.'''  '''William Penn''' joined the Quakers in London, a religion disliked by the King.  In 1670, Penn held a worship service and was arrested for allegedly disturbing the King’s peace.  At trial, the jurors heard testimony, and the judge, as is still the custom, delivered jury instructions prior to its deliberations.  The jury instructions included an order to find the Penn guilty.  

But the jury refused to find Penn guilty.  The judge angrily sent them back to continue deliberations.  The jury returned again with its same verdict.  The judge demanded “a verdict that the court will accept, and you shall be locked up without meat, drink, fire, and tobacco....We will have a verdict by the help of God or you will starve for it.”  The jury went out three more times, and returned with the same verdict each time.  Then it refused to deliberate any more and the judge fined and imprisoned them.  Penn was also fined and imprisoned on a scurrilous new charge invented at trial (for donning a hat in the courtroom).  

But the jury refused to find Penn guilty.  The judge angrily sent them back to continue deliberations.  The jury returned again with its same "not guilty" verdict.  The judge demanded “a verdict that the court will accept, and you shall be locked up without meat, drink, fire, and tobacco....We will have a verdict by the help of God or you will starve for it.”  The jury went out three more times, and returned with the same verdict each time.  Then it refused to deliberate any more and the judge fined and imprisoned them.  Penn was also fined and imprisoned on a scurrilous new charge invented at trial (for donning a hat in the courtroom).  

On appeal, the jurors won their independence and were released from jail, though that did not help Penn.   

On appeal, the jurors won their independence and were released from jail, though that did not help Penn.