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==The Presidency of John Adams==

==The Presidency of John Adams==

[[John Adams]], born to a prosperous farmer in Massachusetts, became the second President of the United States after George Washington, who was a "tough act to follow" (i.e., no one could be as respected as Washington was).  John Adams was elected President as the Federalist Party's candidate in 1796, and served from 1797-1801.   

[[John Adams]], a direct descendant of Puritans in the Massachusetts Bay Colony, graduated from Harvard and became the second President of the United States after George Washington, who was a "tough act to follow" (i.e., no one could be as respected as Washington was).  John Adams was elected President as the Federalist Party's candidate in 1796, and served from 1797-1801.   

He served only one term (four years) and his presidency was a failure due primarily to foreign policy humiliations.  The problem was that no one in Europe respected this new country called the United States, and Adams had to deal with that lack of respect.  For example, in 1798 there was the "XYZ Affair," in which American diplomats went to France to demand an end to French attacks on American ships.  Instead of being received in a dignified manner, three French agents (referred to anonymously as "XYZ") demanded that a bribe be given to them or else the American request would not even be considered.  News of this demand for a bribe reached the United States and it was humiliating to the young country.

 

Adams served only one term (four years) and his presidency was a failure due primarily to foreign policy humiliations.  The problem was that no one in Europe respected this new country called the United States, and Adams was unable to deal with that lack of respect.  For example, in 1798 there was the "XYZ Affair," in which American diplomats went to France to demand an end to French attacks on American ships.  Instead of being received in a dignified manner, three French agents (referred to anonymously as "XYZ") demanded that a bribe be given to them or else the American request would not even be considered.  News of this demand for a bribe reached the United States and it was humiliating to the young country.

Adams had been a successful attorney, and had courageously obtained "not guilty" verdicts at the trial of the British soldiers who fired upon colonists in the Boston Massacre.  But like many trial attorneys, Adams was combative in personal discussions also.  He loved to argue all the time.  That personality does not make for a good President.

Adams had been a successful attorney, and had courageously obtained "not guilty" verdicts at the trial of the British soldiers who fired upon colonists in the Boston Massacre.  But like many trial attorneys, Adams was combative in personal discussions also.  He loved to argue all the time.  That personality does not make for a good President.

In particular, Adams did not handle the criticism of him well.  Recall that he was from Puritan Massachusetts, where it was customary to exclude or even execute someone who challenged authority.  Adams' reaction to unfavorable statements about him was to sign the Alien & Sedition Acts, which made it a crime to criticize him!

Adams' mindset was similar to that of his Puritan ancestors, who would exclude or even execute someone who challenged their authority.  Adams' reaction to unfavorable statements about him was to sign the Alien & Sedition Acts, which made it a crime to criticize him!

The political party known as the "Federalist Party," which Adams led, wanted to censor and weaken the opposition party, known as the "Democratic-Republican Party."  The Alien & Sedition Acts were designed to weaken the Democratic-Republican Party, which had [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]] as its leaders.  The Alien Act gave the President the power to expel aliens (immigrants) from the country, and the Sedition Act made it a crime to impede any law or utter criticism of high government officials like Adams.  By today's standards, the Sedition Act was blatantly unconstitutional under the First Amendment protection of free speech.

The political party known as the "Federalist Party," which Adams led, wanted to censor and weaken the opposition party, known as the "Democratic-Republican Party."  The Alien & Sedition Acts were designed to weaken the Democratic-Republican Party, which had [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]] as its leaders.  The Alien Act gave the President the power to expel aliens (immigrants) from the country, and the Sedition Act made it a crime to impede any law or utter criticism of high government officials like Adams.  By today's standards, the Sedition Act was blatantly unconstitutional under the First Amendment protection of free speech.

The Adams Administration then went from bad to worse.  From 1798 through 1800, there was an undeclared naval war with France, which was the result of the United States aligning itself with France's enemy, England, on the high seas.  Specifically, the United States accepted British naval protection, and that resulted in conflicts with the French.  (England and France were enemies throughout the 1700s and 1800s).

The Adams Administration then went from bad to worse.  From 1798 through 1800, there was an undeclared naval war with France, which was the result of the United States aligning itself with France's enemy, England, on the high seas.  Specifically, the United States accepted British naval protection, and that resulted in conflicts with the French.  (England and France were enemies throughout the 1700s and 1800s).

One final act by President Adams angered his political opponents further.  There was a five-month delay between the presidential election and the swearing in of a new President (the gap is only about two months now).  After Thomas Jefferson crushed Adams in the election of 1800, Adams appointed a bunch of "midnight judges" just before Adams was replaced by Jefferson.  Jefferson was so angry by this "lame duck" action (something done by a politician after he is defeated but just before he is replaced in office by the winner) that Jefferson blocked the payment of salaries to these new judges for their work.  This led to the famous case of ''Marbury v. Madison'' (1803), where the Supreme Court held in Jefferson's favor by declaring a federal law to be unconstitutional.  This was the first time the new Supreme Court declared an Act of Congress to be unconstitutional and thereby void.

One final act by President Adams angered his political opponents further.  There was a five-month delay between the presidential election and the swearing in of a new President (the gap is only about two months now).  After Thomas Jefferson crushed Adams in the election of 1800, Adams appointed a bunch of "midnight judges" just before Adams was replaced by Jefferson.  Jefferson was so angry by this "lame duck" action (something done by a politician after he is defeated but just before he is replaced in office by the winner) that Jefferson blocked the payment of salaries to these new judges for their work.  This led to the famous case of ''Marbury v. Madison'' (1803), where the Supreme Court held in Jefferson's favor by declaring a federal law to be unconstitutional.  This was the first time the new Supreme Court declared an Act of Congress to be unconstitutional and thereby void.  The Court grabbed power for itself to invalidate an Act of Congress, but did it in a way that President Jefferson would not complain by making him the victor in that particular case.  Think about clever way the Court expanded its own power without sparking any resistance by Jefferson, who opposed a powerful judiciary.

== References ==

== References ==