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Isaac Newton (view source)

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Newton emphasized that conclusions are drawn from experiments, "But hitherto I have not been able to discover the cause of those properties of gravity from phenomena, and I frame no hypotheses; for whatever is not deduced from the phenomena, is to be called an hypothesis; and hypotheses, whether metaphysical or physical, whether of occult qualities or mechanical, have no place in experimental philosophy."<ref>http://books.google.com/books?id=mlLAG5EUZqQC&pg=PA428&dq=I+have+not+been+able+to+discover+the+cause+of+those+properties+of+gravity+from+phenomena,+and+I+frame+no+hypotheses;+for+whatever+is+not+deduced+from+the+phenomena+is+to+be+called+a+hypothesis,+and+hypotheses,+whether+metaphysical+or+physical,+whether+of+occult+qualities+or+mechanical,+have+no+place+in+experimental+philosophy.&hl=en&ei=h_xmTdWUE4KCsQObj82mBA&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=9&ved=0CFAQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q&f=false</ref>

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In 1705, in recognition of Isaac Newton's role as master of the [[Mint]], [[Queen Anne]] [[knighted]] him.<ref>~~Sir Isaac Newton (1642/3–1727): A Scientific Genius, by Ann Lamont~~[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v12/i3/newton.asp]</ref> It was the first knighthood to be given for scientific achievement rather than prowess on the battlefield or work in government.<ref>~~Isaac Newton and God's Law of Gravity~~[http://www.doesgodexist.org/NovDec01/IsaacNewtonAndGodsLawOfGravity.html]</ref>

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In 1705, in recognition of Isaac Newton's role as master of the [[Mint]], [[Queen Anne]] [[knighted]] him.<ref>[http://www.answersingenesis.org/creation/v12/i3/newton.asp Sir Isaac Newton (1642/3–1727): A Scientific Genius, by Ann Lamont]</ref> It was the first knighthood to be given for scientific achievement rather than prowess on the battlefield or work in government.<ref>[http://www.doesgodexist.org/NovDec01/IsaacNewtonAndGodsLawOfGravity.html Isaac Newton and God's Law of Gravity]</ref>

Newton is often seen as one of the most influential men in all of history and perhaps the greatest scientist ever. His work was influential in shaping the philosophical outlook of the entire [[Enlightenment]], especially after writers such as [[Voltaire]] published simplified versions comprehensible to the non-scientist.

==Life==

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Newton was born on [[Christmas]] day December 25, 1642<ref> He was born a little more that a year after Galileo died. [[Italy]] and England used different calendars, however, so there is a mistake to the effect they died in the same year. Galileo died in 1641 by the English calendar.</ref> in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire; his father, also Isaac, died before his birth. The senior Isaac Newton (1606–1642) was a wealthy but illiterate farmer who left extensive lands as well as goods worth £459, including a flock of 235 sheep and a herd of 46 cattle. The annual income was about £150, and Newton drew on that income to supplement his college fellowship while at Cambridge. The Newtons were a well-to-do, upwardly mobile family of farmers, but never had a prominent member. When he was a little more than two years old, his mother Hannah (1610–1679), remarried, and his upbringing was taken over by his maternal grandmother. He began his schooling in neighboring villages, and, at ten, was sent to the grammar school at Grantham, the nearest town of any size. He boarded during terms at the house of an apothecary from whom he may have derived his lifelong interest in chemistry. The young Newton seems to have been a quiet, not particularly bookish, lad, but very ready with his hands; he made sun dials, model windmills, a water clock, a mechanical carriage, and flew kites with lanterns attached to their tails. Throughout his life he built mechanical devices and fashioned his own tools for high-precision work.

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Newton was born on [[Christmas]] day December 25, 1642<ref>He was born a little more that a year after Galileo died. [[Italy]] and England used different calendars, however, so there is a mistake to the effect they died in the same year. Galileo died in 1641 by the English calendar.</ref> in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire; his father, also Isaac, died before his birth. The senior Isaac Newton (1606–1642) was a wealthy but illiterate farmer who left extensive lands as well as goods worth £459, including a flock of 235 sheep and a herd of 46 cattle. The annual income was about £150, and Newton drew on that income to supplement his college fellowship while at Cambridge. The Newtons were a well-to-do, upwardly mobile family of farmers, but never had a prominent member. When he was a little more than two years old, his mother Hannah (1610–1679), remarried, and his upbringing was taken over by his maternal grandmother. He began his schooling in neighboring villages, and, at ten, was sent to the grammar school at Grantham, the nearest town of any size. He boarded during terms at the house of an apothecary from whom he may have derived his lifelong interest in chemistry. The young Newton seems to have been a quiet, not particularly bookish, lad, but very ready with his hands; he made sun dials, model windmills, a water clock, a mechanical carriage, and flew kites with lanterns attached to their tails. Throughout his life he built mechanical devices and fashioned his own tools for high-precision work.

In 1656, Newton's mother, on the death of her second husband, returned to Woolsthorpe and took her son out of school with the idea of making him a farmer. He hated farming. His mother, after considerable persuasion by his teacher at Grantham, who had recognized his intellectual gifts, allowed him to prepare for entrance to [[Cambridge University]]. In June 1661, he was admitted to prestigious Trinity College as a lowly "sub-sizar" (a student required to do work-study). The main curriculum was the study of Aristotle, but early in 1664, as Newton's notebooks indicate, he began an intensive self-study of geometry, Copernican astronomy and optics. On his own he read Descartes, Pierre Gassendi, Galileo, Robert Boyle, Thomas Hobbes, Kenelm Digby, Joseph Glanville, and Henry More. He was a loner with only one friend, but he was stimulated by the distinguished mathematician and theologian Isaac Barrow, Lucasian Professor of Mathematics, who recognized Newton's genius and did all he could to foster it.

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Newton took his bachelor's degree in January 1665 and was selected for a scholarship in 1664 and a fellowship in 1667. Upon taking his MA he became one of Trinity college's sixty fellows, with an income of £60, part of which came in the form of room and board. He had no duties at Trinity over the next 28 years; he did no teaching apart from a few lectures (to nearly empty halls) and tutoring an occasional student. At the urging of Isaac Barrow in 1669 he wrote out some of his findings, which circulated in manuscript. He invented the reflecting telescope, which caused a sensation in London in 1671 and his election to the Royal Society. Newton became Lucasian professor of mathematics in 1669 at £100 per annum. Added to his fellowship and family estate, Newton was well off. He spent most of his time with experiments in alchemy and speculations in Arian theology, which had no influence whatever at the time or later. Newton made enemies easily, with an almost paranoid style of [[disputation]]. Many scientists in the era were repeatedly charging each other with plagiarism, and sometimes hid their discoveries in code so that in future years they could decode the message and claim priority. In 1704 he published his great book on ''Opticks'', which had been mostly written three decades before.

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After his death and burial, Newton was exhumed so he could be buried in a more prominent location in [[Westminster Abbey]]. During this exhumation process, it was discovered that Newton had large amounts of [[mercury (element) | mercury]] in his body, probably as a direct result of his [[alchemy|alchemical]] experiments. Exposure to large amounts of mercury may explain Newton’s eccentricity in his latter years, as well as his cause of death.<ref>~~Newton Biography~~[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html]</ref>

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After his death and burial, Newton was exhumed so he could be buried in a more prominent location in [[Westminster Abbey]]. During this exhumation process, it was discovered that Newton had large amounts of [[mercury (element)|mercury]] in his body, probably as a direct result of his [[alchemy|alchemical]] experiments. Exposure to large amounts of mercury may explain Newton’s eccentricity in his latter years, as well as his cause of death.<ref>[http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/biography/Newton.html Newton Biography]</ref>

==National affairs==

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==Year of great discovery==

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The year 1666 is known as Newton's ''annus mirabilis'' (miraculous ~~year--more~~ precisely the two years 1665-1666), about twenty-four years of age. He later recalled, "For in those days I was in the prime of my age for invention & minded Mathematicks & Philosophy more than at any time since." (By "philosophy" he meant physics.)

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The year 1666 is known as Newton's ''annus mirabilis'' (miraculous year—more precisely the two years 1665-1666), about twenty-four years of age. He later recalled, "For in those days I was in the prime of my age for invention & minded Mathematicks & Philosophy more than at any time since." (By "philosophy" he meant physics.)

===Calculus===

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Newton broke ground with his innovative work founding the field of [[calculus]]. He had been motivated by the need for alternate ways to compute [[pi]]. He isolated a formulation of pi as the area under an [[arc]] of the unit circle; thus to calculate pi he would only have to compute this area. Whereas [[Pierre de Fermat]] had already worked out how to compute the areas under [[polynomial]] curves, Newton faced a curve given by a formula involving a [[square root]]. To solve this problem, he re-expressed the square root in terms of an infinite sum of ~~polynomials--this~~ was the motivating idea for his generalized binomial theorem. The standard binomial theorem gave an expansion for ''(x+y)n'' for any nonnegative [[integer]] ''n''. The resulting expression involves binomial [[coefficient]]s. Newton's work extended this theorem to all [[real]] values of ''n'', by using [[convergent]] [[infinite series]] and generalized binomial coefficients. Therefore, to compute the area under the arc, he simply had to use Fermat's theorem to compute the area under each of the polynomial terms of the infinite series and then add them together (proving along the way that this sum converges).

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Newton broke ground with his innovative work founding the field of [[calculus]]. He had been motivated by the need for alternate ways to compute [[pi]]. He isolated a formulation of pi as the area under an [[arc]] of the unit circle; thus to calculate pi he would only have to compute this area. Whereas [[Pierre de Fermat]] had already worked out how to compute the areas under [[polynomial]] curves, Newton faced a curve given by a formula involving a [[square root]]. To solve this problem, he re-expressed the square root in terms of an infinite sum of polynomials—this was the motivating idea for his generalized binomial theorem. The standard binomial theorem gave an expansion for ''(x+y)n'' for any nonnegative [[integer]] ''n''. The resulting expression involves binomial [[coefficient]]s. Newton's work extended this theorem to all [[real]] values of ''n'', by using [[convergent]] [[infinite series]] and generalized binomial coefficients. Therefore, to compute the area under the arc, he simply had to use Fermat's theorem to compute the area under each of the polynomial terms of the infinite series and then add them together (proving along the way that this sum converges).

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Proceeding from this method, Newton formulated the idea of [[integration]] ~~-- a~~ computation of the area under any curve by using infinite series of areas. He followed that with a method for [[differentiation]], and came upon the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]], which relates differentiation and integration. Having invented the calculus, he put aside mathematics for two years and turned to physics.

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Proceeding from this method, Newton formulated the idea of [[integration]]—a computation of the area under any curve by using infinite series of areas. He followed that with a method for [[differentiation]], and came upon the [[fundamental theorem of calculus]], which relates differentiation and integration. Having invented the calculus, he put aside mathematics for two years and turned to physics.

Although Newton had communicated his discoveries in the calculus privately, he did not publish anything formal about it until finally, in 1704, he published ''Opticks''. In the meantime the German mathematician [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] had developed his own very similar version of the calculus. Both mathematicians used similar ideas of infinitesimals to smooth out details of division by zero and other seeming mathematical obstacles.

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Newton's theory is based on action-at-a-distance which has always been opposed by some scientists, and now most physicists endorse the very different [[theory of relativity]]. Both theories predict identical results at small scales, similar results at the scale of the [[solar system]] and very different results at [[Cosmology|cosmological]] scales beyond the [[solar system]].

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Newton had already made great progress in his devising "method of fluxions" (the infinitesimal calculus). During the plague years he recorded his first thoughts on gravitation, inspired by watching an apple fall. It fell straight ~~down--why~~ was that? He was trying at that time to determine what type of force could hold the moon in its path. The fall of the apple led him to think that it might be the same gravitational force, suitably diminished by distance, that had acted on the apple. Thereby he discovered the law of [[gravitation]] (attraction is proportional with inverse distance squared). He verified his conjecture approximately by a numerical calculation. He did not, at the time, pursue the matter, because the problem of calculating the combined attraction of the whole earth on a small body near its surface was obviously one of great difficulty.<ref> The problem was enormously simplified when he later used his calculus to prove that, for purposes of gravity, a uniform sphere of any size can be considered as a single mass located at one point, the center.</ref>

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Newton had already made great progress in his devising "method of fluxions" (the infinitesimal calculus). During the plague years he recorded his first thoughts on gravitation, inspired by watching an apple fall. It fell straight down—why was that? He was trying at that time to determine what type of force could hold the moon in its path. The fall of the apple led him to think that it might be the same gravitational force, suitably diminished by distance, that had acted on the apple. Thereby he discovered the law of [[gravitation]] (attraction is proportional with inverse distance squared). He verified his conjecture approximately by a numerical calculation. He did not, at the time, pursue the matter, because the problem of calculating the combined attraction of the whole earth on a small body near its surface was obviously one of great difficulty.<ref>The problem was enormously simplified when he later used his calculus to prove that, for purposes of gravity, a uniform sphere of any size can be considered as a single mass located at one point, the center.</ref>

Newton struggled with how to conceptualize gravity. He had early rejected Descartes's vortex account of the cause of the motion of the planets. Descartes had argued that forces were transmitted through contact and that this required that matter be continuous and that hence there could be no vacuums. As early as 1665 Newton attempted to find a physical explanation of the cause of gravity but never found a suitable answer. As Newton said later in his ''Principia,'' "I have not as yet been able to deduce from phenomena the reason for these properties of gravity, and I do not feign hypotheses. For whatever is not deduced from the phenomena must be called hypothesis; and hypotheses, whether metaphysical or physical, or based on occult qualities, or mechanical, have no place in experimental philosophy". Thus Newton offers no explanation of gravity but shows through his mathematics that it "acts" in accordance to the mathematical laws he offers us in the ''Principia''. This was a difficult approach for his contemporaries to accept. [[Robert Hooke]], in particular, saw experimentation as the heart of science and disapproved of Newton's focus on theory and mathematics.

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== Religious Beliefs ==

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Newton was an [[Arian]] (Illegalized in Europe since the First Council of Nicaea) who rejected the Trinity and was ambiguous about the divinity of Christ. As his leading biographer concludes, "Well before 1675, Newton had become an Arian in the original sense of the term." That is, he emphasized the powers of God the father and deemphasized Jesus.<ref>Westfall, ''Never at Rest'' p. 103. Westfall notes, p. 350, "No evidence at all indicates that Newton ceased to be an Arian."</ref> He considered himself a [[Christian]] who accepted the [[Bible]] as the Word of [[God]],<ref>"I have a fundamental belief in the [[Bible]] as the Word of God, written by those who were inspired. I study the Bible daily." Tiner, J.H. (1975). Isaac Newton: Inventor, Scientist and Teacher. Milford, Michigan, U.S.: Mott Media.</ref> after the age of 25 he devoted ~~much--perhaps most--of~~ his thinking to religion. His unorthodox views violated the rules at Cambridge University, but his colleagues protected him. Newton wrote the book ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cIoPAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=%22An+Historical+Account+of+Two+Notable+Corruptions+of+Scripture%22#v=onepage&q=&f=false An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture]'' and removed the parts of 1 John 5:7-8 and 1 Timothy 3:16 that do not appear in the earliest [[Koine Greek]] [[New Testament]] manuscripts. The first one is called the ''[[Johannine Comma]]'' in Latin. These passages in the KJV are (with the unoriginal parts added later in '''''red'''''):

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Newton was an [[Arian]] (Illegalized in Europe since the First Council of Nicaea) who rejected the Trinity and was ambiguous about the divinity of Christ. As his leading biographer concludes, "Well before 1675, Newton had become an Arian in the original sense of the term." That is, he emphasized the powers of God the father and deemphasized Jesus.<ref>Westfall, ''Never at Rest'' p. 103. Westfall notes, p. 350, "No evidence at all indicates that Newton ceased to be an Arian."</ref> He considered himself a [[Christian]] who accepted the [[Bible]] as the Word of [[God]],<ref>"I have a fundamental belief in the [[Bible]] as the Word of God, written by those who were inspired. I study the Bible daily." Tiner, J.H. (1975). Isaac Newton: Inventor, Scientist and Teacher. Milford, Michigan, U.S.: Mott Media.</ref> after the age of 25 he devoted much—perhaps most—of his thinking to religion. His unorthodox views violated the rules at Cambridge University, but his colleagues protected him. Newton wrote the book ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cIoPAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1&dq=%22An+Historical+Account+of+Two+Notable+Corruptions+of+Scripture%22#v=onepage&q=&f=false An Historical Account of Two Notable Corruptions of Scripture]'' and removed the parts of 1 John 5:7-8 and 1 Timothy 3:16 that do not appear in the earliest [[Koine Greek]] [[New Testament]] manuscripts. The first one is called the ''[[Johannine Comma]]'' in Latin. These passages in the KJV are (with the unoriginal parts added later in '''''red'''''):

:7 For there are three that bear record ['''''in heaven, the Father, the Word, and the Holy Ghost: and these three are one. 8 And there are three that bear witness in earth,'''''] the Spirit, and the water, and the blood: and these three agree in one. (1 John 5:7-8)

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Newton believed that God's creation of the universe was self evident given its grandeur.<ref>Webb, R.K. ed. Knud Haakonssen. “The emergence of Rational Dissent.” Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1996. p19.</ref> He also warned against using his laws to replace the creator. He said, "Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion. God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done."<ref>Tiner, J.H. (1975). Isaac Newton: Inventor, Scientist and Teacher. Milford, Michigan, U.S.: Mott Media.</ref>

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Newton wrote over a million words on ~~religion--nearly~~ all in unpublished hand-written manuscripts and unavailable for research until the 20th century. Although older scholars did not have access to his writings, "Among contemporary scholars, the consensus is that Newton was an Arian," concludes Pfizenmaier (1997).<ref>Thomas C. Pfizenmaier, "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?," ''Journal of the History of Ideas,'' Vol. 58, No. 1 (Jan., 1997), pp. 57-80 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3653988 in JSTOR]</ref> Arians were Christians but the Arian theology died out as an organized force a thousand years before; Newton read the old texts and identified himself with Arius and his beliefs.

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Newton wrote over a million words on religion—nearly all in unpublished hand-written manuscripts and unavailable for research until the 20th century. Although older scholars did not have access to his writings, "Among contemporary scholars, the consensus is that Newton was an Arian," concludes Pfizenmaier (1997).<ref>Thomas C. Pfizenmaier, "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?," ''Journal of the History of Ideas,'' Vol. 58, No. 1 (Jan., 1997), pp. 57-80 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3653988 in JSTOR]</ref> Arians were Christians but the Arian theology died out as an organized force a thousand years before; Newton read the old texts and identified himself with Arius and his beliefs.

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* "Opposition to godliness is [[Atheism]] in profession and idolatry in practice. Atheism is so senseless and odious to mankind that it never had many professors." - Sir Isaac Newton<ref>Newton, Isaac. ''A Short Scheme of the True Religion''. Unpublished writing quoted in Brewster, David (1855).</ref>

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==~~Reference~~==

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==References==

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* Hall, A. Rupert. ''Isaac Newton: Adventurer in Thought.'' (1992). 468 pp. [http://www.amazon.com/Isaac-Newton-Adventurer-Cambridge-Biographies/dp/052156669X/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196336989&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

* Hofmann, Joseph Ehrenfried. ''Classical Mathematics: A Concise History of the Classical Era in Mathematics.'' (1959) [http://www.questia.com/library/book/classical-mathematics-a-concise-history-of-the-classical-era-in-mathematics-by-joseph-ehrenfried-hofmann.jsp online edition]

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* Hoskin, Michael. "Newton and Newtonianism" pp ~~130-67~~ in Hoskin, ed. ''The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Concise-History-Astronomy/dp/0521576008/ref=si3_rdr_bb_product excerpt and text search]

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* Hoskin, Michael. "Newton and Newtonianism" pp 130–67 in Hoskin, ed. ''The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy'' (1999) [http://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Concise-History-Astronomy/dp/0521576008/ref=si3_rdr_bb_product excerpt and text search]

* Kline, Morris. ''Mathematical Thought from Ancient to Modern Times''. Volume: 1. (1972).

* Mandelbrote, Scott. ''Footprints of the Lion: Isaac Newton at Work.'' Cambridge U. Press, (2001). 142 pp

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* Force, James E., and Richard H. Popkin, eds. ''Newton and Religion: Context, Nature, and Influence.'' (1999), 342pp . Pp. xvii + 325. 13 papers by scholars using newly opened manuscripts

* Ramati, Ayval. "The Hidden Truth of Creation: Newton's Method of Fluxions" ''British Journal for the History of Science'' 34: 417-438. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/4028372 in JSTOR], argues that his calculus had a theological basis

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* Snobelen, Stephen D. "'God of Gods, and Lord of Lords': The Theology of Isaac Newton's General Scholium to the Principia," ''Osiris,'' 2nd Series, Vol. 16, (2001), pp. ~~169-208~~ [http://www.jstor.org/stable/301985 in JSTOR]

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* Snobelen, Stephen D. "'God of Gods, and Lord of Lords': The Theology of Isaac Newton's General Scholium to the Principia," ''Osiris,'' 2nd Series, Vol. 16, (2001), pp. 169–208 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/301985 in JSTOR]

* Snobelen, Stephen D. "Isaac Newton, Heretic: The Strategies of a Nicodemite," ''British Journal for the History of Science'' 32: 381-419. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/4027945 in JSTOR]

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* Pfizenmaier, Thomas C. "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?," ''Journal of the History of Ideas,'' Vol. 58, No. 1 (Jan., 1997), pp. ~~57-80~~ [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3653988 in JSTOR]

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* Pfizenmaier, Thomas C. "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?," ''Journal of the History of Ideas,'' Vol. 58, No. 1 (Jan., 1997), pp. 57–80 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3653988 in JSTOR]

* Westfall, Richard S. ''Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton.'' 2 vol. Cambridge U. Press, 1981. 895 pp. the major scholarly biography [http://www.amazon.com/Never-Rest-Biography-Cambridge-Paperback/dp/0521274354/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1196337354&sr=1-1 excerpt and text search]

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* Wiles, Maurice. ''Archetypal Heresy. Arianism through the Centuries.'' (1996) 214pp, with chapter 4 on 18th century England; pp ~~77-93~~ on Newton [http://www.amazon.com/Archetypal-Heresy-Arianism-through-Centuries/dp/0199245916/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1221655973&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search],

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* Wiles, Maurice. ''Archetypal Heresy. Arianism through the Centuries.'' (1996) 214pp, with chapter 4 on 18th century England; pp 77–93 on Newton [http://www.amazon.com/Archetypal-Heresy-Arianism-through-Centuries/dp/0199245916/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1221655973&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search],

===Primary sources===

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* Newton, Isaac. ''Observations upon the Prophecies of Daniel, and the Apocalypse of St. John'' [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16878/16878-h/16878-h.htm The Project Gutenberg EBook]

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==External ~~Links~~==

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==External links==

*[http://www.relativitycalculator.com/Newton_Axioms.shtml Isaac Newton's Laws of Motion]

*[http://www.college-optometrists.org/index.aspx/pcms/site.college.What_We_Do.museyeum.online_exhibitions.observatory.newton/ Newton & the Colour of Light]

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