Changes

Pull factors are attractions that exist in the destination, especially freedom to achieve and prosper.  The psychological conviction that life will be better at the destination is a powerful pull factor, reinforced by images in the media, and especially by optimistic letters home from successful immigrants and cash remittances. The most important attractions are good jobs,  (especially in the 19th century) land for farming, and a sense that the new land offers more freedom and opportunity.

Pull factors are attractions that exist in the destination, especially freedom to achieve and prosper.  The psychological conviction that life will be better at the destination is a powerful pull factor, reinforced by images in the media, and especially by optimistic letters home from successful immigrants and cash remittances. The most important attractions are good jobs,  (especially in the 19th century) land for farming, and a sense that the new land offers more freedom and opportunity.

The decision can be analyzed though a cost-benefit analysis of the push and pull factors. If a person judges the pull and push factors outweigh the cost or disadvantages of moving the that person is likely to move.  If the costs outweigh the pull and push factors, the person is not likely to move.  Furthermore it takes time to move; many people stay around to build up cash reserves or gain educational credentials. However, even when someone decides to move intervening obstacles play a role. Long distances, the expense of moving, poor health, fears about the drastic changes in a far-off land, and family obligations may induce a person who wants to move to stay home.   

The decision can be analyzed though a cost-benefit analysis of the push and pull factors. If a person judges the pull and push factors outweigh the cost or disadvantages of moving the that person is likely to move.  If the costs outweigh the pull and push factors, the person is not likely to move.  Furthermore, it takes time to move; many people stay around to build up cash reserves or gain educational credentials. However, even when someone decides to move intervening obstacles play a role. Long distances, the expense of moving, poor health, fears about the drastic changes in a far-off land, and family obligations may induce a person who wants to move to stay home.   

===Selectivity===

===Selectivity===

The people most likely to migrate are young adults, especially young men.  People with more assets (such as cash or education or adventurous personality) would be more likely to leave.  Looked at the other way, people who want to leave for one reason or another will try to save money, get more skills or schooling, and avoid long-term commitments.  In practice, most migration is “chained.”  People follow a chain of kinfolk who have already settled in a new area, and who provide information, money and encouragement for others to follow. (Of course, they can also warn that conditions are poor, and don’t come right now.)

The people most likely to migrate are young adults, especially young men.  People with more assets (such as cash or education or adventurous personality) would be more likely to leave.  Looked at the other way, people who want to leave for one reason or another will try to save money, get more skills or schooling, and avoid long-term commitments.  In practice, most migration is “chained.”  People follow a chain of kinfolk who have already settled in a new area, and who provide information, money and encouragement for others to follow. (Of course, they can also warn that conditions are poor, and don’t come right now.)

A person has to be old enough to be independent of the family to make the decision to migrate. A century ago people aged 15 to 20 were full time workers and could make independent decisions themselves. Today, academic credentials are much more important, and migration decisions usually come after people finish high school or college. Today in the US, migration peaks for young adults in their twenties. By the late thirties they have usually settled down, geographically.

A person has to be old enough to be independent of the family to make the decision to migrate. A century ago people aged 15 to 20 were full-time workers and could make independent decisions themselves. Today, academic credentials are much more important, and migration decisions usually come after people finish high school or college. Today in the US, migration peaks for young adults in their twenties. By the late thirties they have usually settled down, geographically.

Divorce and separation are events that stimulate the sense it's time to move on. For married couples, additional children produce rootedness; the fewer the number of children in school the easier it is to migrate. If both spouses are working, migration rates are lower because it's harder to find two equally good jobs. The phenomenon of a couple migrating because the wife has a good job offer, with the husband training along, is becoming more common, but the usual pattern is that the husband's job is paramount. On the other hand, large corporations that want to move their executives around the country or around the world are discovering that they must help find employment opportunities for the spouse, and also guarantee high quality living conditions and good schools.

Divorce and separation are events that stimulate the sense it's time to move on. For married couples, additional children produce rootedness; the fewer the number of children in school the easier it is to migrate. If both spouses are working, migration rates are lower because it's harder to find two equally good jobs. The phenomenon of a couple migrating because the wife has a good job offer, with the husband training along, is becoming more common, but the usual pattern is that the husband's job is paramount. On the other hand, large corporations that want to move their executives around the country or around the world are discovering that they must help find employment opportunities for the spouse, and also guarantee high quality living conditions and good schools.

==Internal Migration==

==Internal Migration==

The classical internal migration pattern is from poor to better-off areas. In Italy the main movement is from the south to the north; in Britain, from Scotland and the now-depressed cities of early industrialization to London and the south of England; in Brazil, from the northeast to the south and especially to Sao Paulo.  

The classical internal migration pattern is from poor to better-off areas. In Italy the main movement is from the south to the north; in Britain, from Scotland and the now-depressed cities of early industrialization to London and the south of England; in Brazil, from the northeast to the south and especially to São Paulo.  

In recent decades, there has been heavy migration from rural areas to very large cities in developing countries.  

In recent decades, there has been heavy migration from rural areas to very large cities in developing countries.  

== Urbanization==

== Urbanization==

Urbanization is the process of population shifting from the countryside to cities. "Urban" is a confusing word with many connotations. To census officials it means a location with more than 2,500 people. To most people "urban" conjures up New York or Phoenix, rather than a small crossroads village. The sense of urban as "urbane" indicates sophistication and culture. On the other hand, "urban problems" connotes poverty, crime, homelessness and decay. Using the old definition of urban = 2500 population, the USA became 50% urban for the first time in 1920. Everything that is not "urban" by the old definition was "rural." Rural encompassed farmers, and also small towns and villages. Dramatic improvements in agricultural productivity have sharply reduced the number of farmers needed; in 1900, 42 percent of Americans were farmers; today the figure is under 2 percent, and many people who live on farms have non-farm jobs as well—they commute to work by auto, of course.)

Urbanization is the process of population shifting from the countryside to cities. "Urban" is a confusing word with many connotations. To census officials it means a location with more than 2,500 people. To most people "urban" conjures up New York or Phoenix, rather than a small crossroads village. The sense of urban as "urbane" indicates sophistication and culture. On the other hand, "urban problems" connotes poverty, crime, homelessness and decay. Using the old definition of urban = 2500 population, the USA became 50% urban for the first time in 1920. Everything that is not "urban" by the old definition was "rural." Rural encompassed farmers, and also small towns and villages. Dramatic improvements in agricultural productivity have sharply reduced the number of farmers needed; in 1900, 42 percent of Americans were farmers; today the figure is under 2 percent, and many people who live on farms have non-farm jobs as well—they commute to work by auto, of course.  

More recently the US Census Bureau has focused on "metropolitan areas" which comprise the center city and its suburbs. Basically the idea is to define an economic unit, with the boundaries determined by commuting patterns. In 1990, half (49%) of the American population lived in 30 metropolitan areas, headed by the New York, Los Angeles and Chicago areas.  In 1990, New York metropolitan area encompassed about 20 million people living in four states, while 15 million lived in the Los Angeles area.  

More recently the US Census Bureau has focused on "metropolitan areas" which comprise the center city and its suburbs. Basically the idea is to define an economic unit, with the boundaries determined by commuting patterns. In 1990, half (49%) of the American population lived in 30 metropolitan areas, headed by the New York, Los Angeles and Chicago areas.  In 1990, New York metropolitan area encompassed about 20 million people living in four states, while 15 million lived in the Los Angeles area.  

* Yaukey, David and Douglas L. Anderton. ''Demography: The Study of Human Population.'' (2nd ed. 2001). Chapter 5

* Yaukey, David and Douglas L. Anderton. ''Demography: The Study of Human Population.'' (2nd ed. 2001). Chapter 5

===Recent migrations===

===Recent migrations===

* Adler, Leonore Loeb , and Uwe P.Gielen, eds. ''Migration: Immigration and Emigration in International Perspective.'' 2003 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106964953&oplinknum=16# online edition]

* Adler, Leonore Loeb, and Uwe P.Gielen, eds. ''Migration: Immigration and Emigration in International Perspective.'' 2003 [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=106964953&oplinknum=16# online edition]

* Borjas, George J. "Does Immigration Grease the Wheels of the Labor Market?" ''Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 2001'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001037127 online edition]  

* Borjas, George J. "Does Immigration Grease the Wheels of the Labor Market?" ''Brookings Papers on Economic Activity, 2001'' [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=5001037127 online edition]  

*  Castles, Stephen, and Mark J. Miller. ''The Age of Migration, Third Edition: International Population Movements in the Modern World'' (2003)  

*  Castles, Stephen, and Mark J. Miller. ''The Age of Migration, Third Edition: International Population Movements in the Modern World'' (2003)