Difference between revisions of "Sociology"
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| − | '''Sociology''' is a branch of Social Sciences concerned with the study of human behaviour, specifically in social relations, using the scientific method of | + | '''Sociology''' is a branch of Social Sciences concerned with the study of human behaviour, specifically in social relations, using the scientific method of observation. Sociology, with psychology, is at the crux of the long standing Nature vs. Nurture debate. Sociology represents nurture and psychology represents nature. |
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| − | observation. Sociology, with psychology, is at the crux of the long standing Nature vs. Nurture debate. Sociology represents nurture and psychology | ||
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| − | represents nature. | ||
<!-- Please read the notes at the bottom when contributing to this article. Thanks - TrueGrit --> | <!-- Please read the notes at the bottom when contributing to this article. Thanks - TrueGrit --> | ||
==History== | ==History== | ||
| − | The term sociology was coined by [[Auguste Comte]] in 1839. Comte is also the father of [positivism]. <ref> Pickering, M. (2007). Auguste Comte. In J. Scott | + | The term sociology was coined by [[Auguste Comte]] in 1839. Comte is also the father of [positivism]. <ref> Pickering, M. (2007). Auguste Comte. In J. Scott (Ed.), ''Fifty key sociologists: the formative theorists'' (pp. 21-26). New York: Routledge.</ref> Comte's theory of positivism limits knowledge to the observable, and is crucial in approaching sociology as a science. The study of society dates back to Greek philosophers, however it was not distinguished as its own field of study until Comte. |
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| − | (Ed.), ''Fifty key sociologists: the formative theorists'' (pp. 21-26). New York: Routledge.</ref> Comte's theory of positivism limits knowledge to the | ||
| − | |||
| − | observable, and is crucial in approaching sociology as a science. The study of society dates back to Greek philosophers, however it was not distinguished as | ||
| − | |||
| − | its own field of study until Comte. | ||
==Key Theories== | ==Key Theories== | ||
| − | + | There are a number of formative theorists who laid the groundwork for sociology, who have had a great deal of influence in Sociology through the following key theories: | |
| − | There are a number of formative theorists who laid the groundwork for sociology, who have had a great deal of influence in Sociology through the following | ||
| − | |||
| − | key theories: | ||
===Conflict Theory=== | ===Conflict Theory=== | ||
| − | [[Conflict theory]] strives to explain social facts in terms of different groups competing for control of resources, or advantages. This process occurs on | + | [[Conflict theory]] strives to explain social facts in terms of different groups competing for control of resources, or advantages. This process occurs on macro levels, such as class groups, and tries to explain stability and change in terms of the conflict between these macro level structures. Two central premises to this theory are that privileged groups are working to maintain their privileges, while the disadvantaged are constantly trying to attain more. [[Karl Marx]] is regarded as the father of conflict theory, and the idea of human society. Communism is the modern day incarnation of Marx ideal human society. Central to the ideas of conflict theory are that by eliminating privilege, the overall welfare of the society can be increased. That is, a true equality amongst members of a society. Through class consciousness, Marx believed that the workers would eventually recognize they were being exploited, and put an end to privilege. <ref>Brym, R.J. (2001). Introducing sociology. In R.J. Brym (Ed.), New society: sociology for the 21st century (pp. 2-25). Toronto: Harcourt.</ref> |
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| − | macro levels, such as class groups, and tries to explain stability and change in terms of the conflict between these macro level structures. Two central | ||
| − | |||
| − | premises to this theory are that privileged groups are working to maintain their privileges, while the disadvantaged are constantly trying to attain more. | ||
| − | |||
| − | [[Karl Marx]] is regarded as the father of conflict theory, and the idea of human society. Communism is the modern day incarnation of Marx ideal human | ||
| − | |||
| − | society. Central to the ideas of conflict theory are that by eliminating privilege, the overall welfare of the society can be increased. That is, a true | ||
| − | |||
| − | equality amongst members of a society. Through class consciousness, Marx believed that the workers would eventually recognize they were being exploited, and | ||
| − | |||
| − | put an end to privilege. <ref>Brym, R.J. (2001). Introducing sociology. In R.J. Brym (Ed.), New society: sociology for the 21st century (pp. 2-25). Toronto: | ||
| − | |||
| − | Harcourt.</ref> | ||
'''Key Figures:''' Karl Marx, [[Frederich Engels]] | '''Key Figures:''' Karl Marx, [[Frederich Engels]] | ||
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===Functionalism=== | ===Functionalism=== | ||
| − | Functionalism is a theory which examines society through interdependent elements, using a somewhat biological approach. In essence, social institutions have | + | Functionalism is a theory which examines society through interdependent elements, using a somewhat biological approach. In essence, social institutions have a specific function for the welfare of the entire society, in much the same way that the body's organs have specific functions that contribute to the overall welfare of the body. Functionalists believe that it is stable social relations or structures that influence human behaviour; these structures arise from shared values, and can either contribute to, or detract from the social stability. Functionalists believe that restoring equilibrium and increasing social cohesion can solve most social problems. In the late 40s, Robert Merton made a significant contribution to functionalist thought with his theories of manifest and latent functions. That is, a social structure can have both intentional functions, and unintentional functions respectively. Merton also believed that social structures can have a varying impact on different groups.<ref>Brym, R.J. (2001). Introducing sociology. In R.J. Brym (Ed.), New society:sociology for the 21st century (pp. 2-25). Toronto: Harcourt.</ref><ref>Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. & Turner, B.S. (2000). The penguin dictionary of sociology (4th ed.). Toronto:Penguin.</ref><ref>Gomme, I.M. (2002). The shadow line: deviance and crime in Canada (3rd ed.). Toronto:Nelson.</ref> |
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| − | a specific function for the welfare of the entire society, in much the same way that the body's organs have specific functions that contribute to the | ||
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| − | welfare of the body. Functionalists believe that it is stable social relations or structures that influence human behaviour; these structures arise from | ||
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| − | shared values, and can either contribute to, or detract from the social stability. Functionalists believe that restoring | ||
| − | |||
| − | cohesion can solve most social problems. In the late 40s, Robert Merton made a significant contribution to functionalist thought with his theories of | ||
| − | |||
| − | manifest and latent functions. That is, a social structure can have both intentional functions, and unintentional functions respectively. Merton also | ||
| − | |||
| − | believed that social structures can have a varying impact on different groups.<ref>Brym, R.J. (2001). Introducing sociology. In R.J. Brym (Ed.), New | ||
| − | |||
| − | society:sociology for the 21st century (pp. 2-25). Toronto: Harcourt.</ref><ref>Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. & Turner, B.S. (2000). The penguin dictionary of | ||
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| − | sociology (4th ed.). Toronto:Penguin.</ref><ref>Gomme, I.M. (2002). The shadow line: deviance and crime in Canada (3rd ed.). Toronto:Nelson.</ref> | ||
| − | Example: The functionalist approach to deviant behaviour takes the position that a certain amount of deviance or crime is necessary in society. At the | + | Example: The functionalist approach to deviant behaviour takes the position that a certain amount of deviance or crime is necessary in society. At the correct balance, deviance has latent functions that contribute to the health of society. When the balance is disrupted, social cohesion deteriorates. More specifically, latent functions of deviance include providing an example of unacceptable conduct to other members of society. Criminals and ''others'' demonstrate unacceptable conduct by incurring sanctions from other formal structures, such as the courts, or mental health institutions. |
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| − | correct balance, deviance has latent functions that contribute to the health of society. When the balance is disrupted, social cohesion deteriorates. More | ||
| − | |||
| − | specifically, latent functions of deviance include providing an example of unacceptable conduct to other members of society. Criminals and ''others'' | ||
| − | |||
| − | demonstrate unacceptable conduct by incurring sanctions from other formal structures, such as the courts, or mental health institutions. | ||
'''Key Figures:''' Auguste Comte, [[Emile Durkheim]], [[Talcott Parsons]], [[Robert Merton]] | '''Key Figures:''' Auguste Comte, [[Emile Durkheim]], [[Talcott Parsons]], [[Robert Merton]] | ||
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===Symbolic Interactionism=== | ===Symbolic Interactionism=== | ||
| − | As one of the key theories in Sociology, symbolic interactionism concerns itself with social | + | As one of the key theories in Sociology, symbolic interactionism concerns itself with social interaction in microlevel settings, unlike conflict theory and functionalism. Symbolic interactionism assumes that person's social behaviour occurs only in the context of the subjective meanings he or she attach to his or her social position. It is important to note however, that the social position of the individual is influenced by his or her own actions; one does not simply ''react'' to one's position in society. <ref>Brym, R.J. (2001). Introducing sociology. In R.J. Brym (Ed.), New society:sociology for the 21st century (pp. 2-25). Toronto: Harcourt.</ref><ref>Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. & Turner, B.S. (2000). The penguin dictionary of sociology (4th ed.). Toronto:Penguin.</ref> |
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| − | functionalism. Symbolic interactionism assumes that person's social behaviour occurs only in the context of the subjective meanings he or she attach to his | ||
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| − | or her social position. It is important to note however, that the social position of the individual is influenced by his or her own actions; one does not | ||
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| − | simply ''react'' to one's position in society. | ||
| − | <ref>Brym, R.J. (2001). Introducing sociology. In R.J. Brym (Ed.), New society:sociology for the 21st century (pp. 2-25). Toronto: | ||
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| − | Harcourt.</ref><ref>Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. & Turner, B.S. (2000). The penguin dictionary of sociology (4th ed.). Toronto:Penguin.</ref> | ||
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| − | same idea, however one is more likely to reach eternal salvation. | + | Example: Weber's work ''The Protestant Ethic'' is a prime example of symbolic interactionism. Weber looked at the roots of modern capitalism in Protestant asceticism. Weber argues that the first capitalists were Calvanists, though not all Calvanists becamecapitalists. These Calvanists believed in working hard, and not wasting any money on unnecessary material possessions was the way to gain eternal salvation in the Kingdom of Heaven. The actions taken by the Calvanists who became capitalists cannot be separated from the definition they applied to their actions, otherwise meaning is lost. The idea is, that even a good thing done for the wrong reasons can be wrong. Consider the difference between an ascetic Calvanist, and Ebeneezer Scrooge; both have essentially the same idea, however one is more likely to reach eternal salvation. |
'''Key Figures:''' George Herbert Mead | '''Key Figures:''' George Herbert Mead | ||
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===Feminist Theory=== | ===Feminist Theory=== | ||
| − | The science of sociology would not be complete without the feminist perspective. While feminism continues today to be a point of contention, it nevertheless | + | The science of sociology would not be complete without the feminist perspective. While feminism continues today to be a point of contention, it nevertheless has an important contribution to the science. At the time when sociology was born, and throughout its early years, women were not regarded as full citizens in the same way as men. The best evidence to support that position, is the role women played in the home and their limited participation outside the home. Feminist theory focuses on "the system of male domination in society" (Brym, 2001:15). This theory maintains that the relative positions of men and women in society is a social construct, which can and should be changed for the benefit of all members of society. Feminist theory examines structures on both a macrolevel and microlevel setting. The theory holds that the inequalities are institutionalized, even in the field of sociology. The most notable figure is Harriet Martineau, regarded as the first woman sociologist. |
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| − | has an important contribution to the science. At the time when sociology was born, and throughout its early years, women were not regarded as full citizens | ||
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| − | in the same way as men. The best evidence to support that position, is the role women played in the home and their limited participation outside the home. | ||
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| − | Feminist theory focuses on "the system of male domination in society" (Brym, 2001:15). This theory maintains that the relative positions of men and women in | ||
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| − | society is a social construct, which can and should be changed for the benefit of all members of society. Feminist theory examines structures on both a | ||
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| − | macrolevel and microlevel setting. The theory holds that the inequalities are institutionalized, even in the field of sociology. The most notable figure is | ||
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| − | Harriet Martineau, regarded as the first woman sociologist. | ||
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| + | Example: Early theories on social inequality examined the paid work done by men, but ignored completely the unpaid work done by women in the home. To answer the question of why unpaid labour in the home would be of sociological consequence, one must consider the remuneration earned by professional house cleaning services. It is undeniable in light of this evidence, that a spouse's (or parent's) work in the home, is of economic consequence, regardless of the sex of the partner.<ref>Brym, R.J. (2001). Introducing sociology. In R.J. Brym (Ed.), New society:sociology for the 21st century (pp. 2-25). Toronto: Harcourt.</ref><ref>Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. & Turner, B.S. (2000). The penguin dictionary of sociology (4th ed.). Toronto:Penguin.</ref> | ||
'''Key Figures:''' Harriet Martineau, Charlotte Perkins Gilman | '''Key Figures:''' Harriet Martineau, Charlotte Perkins Gilman | ||
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Author, A.A. (Date). Title of essay/article/chapter. In E. Editor (Ed.), Title of book (pp. xx-xx). Place of publication: Publisher. | Author, A.A. (Date). Title of essay/article/chapter. In E. Editor (Ed.), Title of book (pp. xx-xx). Place of publication: Publisher. | ||
| − | Sources/Bias: This document has been compiled through the use of scholarly resources, i.e. published books and texts. It has been written with a neutral | + | Sources/Bias: This document has been compiled through the use of scholarly resources, i.e. published books and texts. It has been written with a neutral bias, including the use of gender neutrality. This is due to the nature of sociology as a science (and a liberal art). The intent is to report only facts, and cite examples from published sources, preferably peer reviewed resources. Please avoid personal opinions, and personal web pages (except personal web pages belonging to recognized authorities, located on university/college servers). |
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| − | bias, including the use of gender neutrality. This is due to the nature of sociology as a science (and a liberal art). The intent is to report only facts, | ||
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| − | and cite examples from published sources, preferably peer reviewed resources. Please avoid personal opinions, and personal web pages (except personal web | ||
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| − | pages belonging to recognized authorities, located on university/college servers). | ||
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Revision as of 03:36, April 28, 2007
Sociology is a branch of Social Sciences concerned with the study of human behaviour, specifically in social relations, using the scientific method of observation. Sociology, with psychology, is at the crux of the long standing Nature vs. Nurture debate. Sociology represents nurture and psychology represents nature.
History
The term sociology was coined by Auguste Comte in 1839. Comte is also the father of [positivism]. [1] Comte's theory of positivism limits knowledge to the observable, and is crucial in approaching sociology as a science. The study of society dates back to Greek philosophers, however it was not distinguished as its own field of study until Comte.
Key Theories
There are a number of formative theorists who laid the groundwork for sociology, who have had a great deal of influence in Sociology through the following key theories:
Conflict Theory
Conflict theory strives to explain social facts in terms of different groups competing for control of resources, or advantages. This process occurs on macro levels, such as class groups, and tries to explain stability and change in terms of the conflict between these macro level structures. Two central premises to this theory are that privileged groups are working to maintain their privileges, while the disadvantaged are constantly trying to attain more. Karl Marx is regarded as the father of conflict theory, and the idea of human society. Communism is the modern day incarnation of Marx ideal human society. Central to the ideas of conflict theory are that by eliminating privilege, the overall welfare of the society can be increased. That is, a true equality amongst members of a society. Through class consciousness, Marx believed that the workers would eventually recognize they were being exploited, and put an end to privilege. [2]
Key Figures: Karl Marx, Frederich Engels
- Notable works include
- Das Kapital by Karl Marx
- The Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx and Frederich Engels
- The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism by Max Weber
Functionalism
Functionalism is a theory which examines society through interdependent elements, using a somewhat biological approach. In essence, social institutions have a specific function for the welfare of the entire society, in much the same way that the body's organs have specific functions that contribute to the overall welfare of the body. Functionalists believe that it is stable social relations or structures that influence human behaviour; these structures arise from shared values, and can either contribute to, or detract from the social stability. Functionalists believe that restoring equilibrium and increasing social cohesion can solve most social problems. In the late 40s, Robert Merton made a significant contribution to functionalist thought with his theories of manifest and latent functions. That is, a social structure can have both intentional functions, and unintentional functions respectively. Merton also believed that social structures can have a varying impact on different groups.[3][4][5]
Example: The functionalist approach to deviant behaviour takes the position that a certain amount of deviance or crime is necessary in society. At the correct balance, deviance has latent functions that contribute to the health of society. When the balance is disrupted, social cohesion deteriorates. More specifically, latent functions of deviance include providing an example of unacceptable conduct to other members of society. Criminals and others demonstrate unacceptable conduct by incurring sanctions from other formal structures, such as the courts, or mental health institutions.
Key Figures: Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton
- Notable works include
- Cours de philosophie positive by Auguste Compte
- Suicide: A study in sociology by Emile Durkheim
- Social Theory and Social Structure by Robert Merton
Symbolic Interactionism
As one of the key theories in Sociology, symbolic interactionism concerns itself with social interaction in microlevel settings, unlike conflict theory and functionalism. Symbolic interactionism assumes that person's social behaviour occurs only in the context of the subjective meanings he or she attach to his or her social position. It is important to note however, that the social position of the individual is influenced by his or her own actions; one does not simply react to one's position in society. [6][7]
Example: Weber's work The Protestant Ethic is a prime example of symbolic interactionism. Weber looked at the roots of modern capitalism in Protestant asceticism. Weber argues that the first capitalists were Calvanists, though not all Calvanists becamecapitalists. These Calvanists believed in working hard, and not wasting any money on unnecessary material possessions was the way to gain eternal salvation in the Kingdom of Heaven. The actions taken by the Calvanists who became capitalists cannot be separated from the definition they applied to their actions, otherwise meaning is lost. The idea is, that even a good thing done for the wrong reasons can be wrong. Consider the difference between an ascetic Calvanist, and Ebeneezer Scrooge; both have essentially the same idea, however one is more likely to reach eternal salvation.
Key Figures: George Herbert Mead
- Notable works include
- Mind, Self, and Society by George Herbert Mead
- The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism by Max Weber
Feminist Theory
The science of sociology would not be complete without the feminist perspective. While feminism continues today to be a point of contention, it nevertheless has an important contribution to the science. At the time when sociology was born, and throughout its early years, women were not regarded as full citizens in the same way as men. The best evidence to support that position, is the role women played in the home and their limited participation outside the home. Feminist theory focuses on "the system of male domination in society" (Brym, 2001:15). This theory maintains that the relative positions of men and women in society is a social construct, which can and should be changed for the benefit of all members of society. Feminist theory examines structures on both a macrolevel and microlevel setting. The theory holds that the inequalities are institutionalized, even in the field of sociology. The most notable figure is Harriet Martineau, regarded as the first woman sociologist.
Example: Early theories on social inequality examined the paid work done by men, but ignored completely the unpaid work done by women in the home. To answer the question of why unpaid labour in the home would be of sociological consequence, one must consider the remuneration earned by professional house cleaning services. It is undeniable in light of this evidence, that a spouse's (or parent's) work in the home, is of economic consequence, regardless of the sex of the partner.[8][9]
Key Figures: Harriet Martineau, Charlotte Perkins Gilman
- Notable works include
- Women and Economics: A Study of the Economic Relation Between Men and Women as a Factor in Social Evolution. by Charlotte Perkins Gilman
- Illustrations of Political Economy by Harriet Martineau
Top Ten Most Influential Books
- Max Weber, Economy and Society
- C. Wright Mills, The Sociological Imagination
- Robert Merton, Social Theory and Social Structure
- Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism
- P.L. Berger and T. Luckmann, The Social Construction of Reality
- Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste
- Norbert Elias, The Civilizing Process
- Jürgen Habermas, The Theory of Communicative Action
- Talcott Parsons, The Structure of Social Action
- Erving Goffman, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life
Source: Books of the Century
External Links
Professional Organizations
- American Sociological Association
- Canadian Sociology and Anthropology Association
- International Sociological Association
Resources
- [http:// Project Gutenburg]
References
- ↑ Pickering, M. (2007). Auguste Comte. In J. Scott (Ed.), Fifty key sociologists: the formative theorists (pp. 21-26). New York: Routledge.
- ↑ Brym, R.J. (2001). Introducing sociology. In R.J. Brym (Ed.), New society: sociology for the 21st century (pp. 2-25). Toronto: Harcourt.
- ↑ Brym, R.J. (2001). Introducing sociology. In R.J. Brym (Ed.), New society:sociology for the 21st century (pp. 2-25). Toronto: Harcourt.
- ↑ Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. & Turner, B.S. (2000). The penguin dictionary of sociology (4th ed.). Toronto:Penguin.
- ↑ Gomme, I.M. (2002). The shadow line: deviance and crime in Canada (3rd ed.). Toronto:Nelson.
- ↑ Brym, R.J. (2001). Introducing sociology. In R.J. Brym (Ed.), New society:sociology for the 21st century (pp. 2-25). Toronto: Harcourt.
- ↑ Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. & Turner, B.S. (2000). The penguin dictionary of sociology (4th ed.). Toronto:Penguin.
- ↑ Brym, R.J. (2001). Introducing sociology. In R.J. Brym (Ed.), New society:sociology for the 21st century (pp. 2-25). Toronto: Harcourt.
- ↑ Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. & Turner, B.S. (2000). The penguin dictionary of sociology (4th ed.). Toronto:Penguin.