Changes

==Relationship to pagan festivals==

==Relationship to pagan festivals==

The view that Christmas is an "appropriation" of a pagan festival has a long history. It was popularized by German scholar Hermann Usener in the late 19th century.<ref>Usener's essay was published in 1889. His views are foreshadowed in two essays by P.E. Jablonski (1693-1757). (Hijmans, p. 584.)</ref> According to Usener, the Church placed Christmas on December 25 as a kind of marketing strategy to absorb pagan solstice festivals into Christianity. The cycle of solstice and equinox is a natural phenomena significant to religions of widely varying character.

The view that Christmas is an "appropriation" of a pagan festival has a long history. It was popularized by German scholar Hermann Usener in the late 19th century.<ref>Usener's essay was published in 1889. His views are foreshadowed in two essays by P.E. Jablonski (1693-1757). (Hijmans, p. 584.)</ref> According to Usener, the Church placed Christmas on December 25 as a kind of marketing strategy to absorb pagan solstice festivals into Christianity.

The end of the year was a "holiday season" of varied celebration in pagan Rome, and it remains so in modern times. Saturnalia began on December 17 and lasted for three to five days. It was followed by ''Dies Natalis Solis Invicti'' on December 25 and Kalends on January 1 to January 4. Saturnalia was exclusive to Italy while ''Natalis Solis Invicti'' is closely associated with Aurelian.

The end of the year was a "holiday season" of varied celebration in pagan Rome, and it remains so in modern times. Saturnalia began on December 17 and lasted for three to five days. It was followed by ''Dies Natalis Solis Invicti'' on December 25 and Kalends on January 1 to January 4. Saturnalia was exclusive to Italy while Sol Invictus was associated with Aurelian's reign.

"It is cosmic symbolism ... which inspired the Church leadership in Rome to elect the winter solstice, December 25, as the birthday of Christ, and the summer solstice as that of John the Baptist, supplemented by the equinoxes as their respective dates of conception. While they were aware that pagans called this day the “birthday” of Sol Invictus, this did not concern them and it did not play any role in their choice of date for Christmas," as Steven Hijmans wrote in ''Sol, the sun in the art and religions of Rome.''<ref name="Hijmans">Hijmans, S.E., ''Sol, the sun in the art and religions of Rome,'' 2009, p. 595.</ref>  

The cycle of solstice and equinox is a natural phenomena significant to religions of widely varying character. "It is cosmic symbolism ... which inspired the Church leadership in Rome to elect the winter solstice, December 25, as the birthday of Christ, and the summer solstice as that of John the Baptist, supplemented by the equinoxes as their respective dates of conception. While they were aware that pagans called this day the “birthday” of Sol Invictus, this did not concern them and it did not play any role in their choice of date for Christmas," as Steven Hijmans wrote in ''Sol, the sun in the art and religions of Rome.''<ref name="Hijmans">Hijmans, S.E., ''Sol, the sun in the art and religions of Rome,'' 2009, p. 595.</ref>  

Both Saturnalia and Sol Invictus were overshadowed by Kalends, a new year celebration. While there is no trace of either Saturalia or Sol Invictus persisting into Christian times, various churchmen noted how difficult it was to suppress Kalends.<ref>"In 578 CE a church Council at Auxerre, Burgundy, forbade disguisings, and another Council, in the year 614, stated it was “unlawful to make any indecent plays upon the Kalends of January, according to the profane practices of the pagans.” (Pennick, Nigel, ''[https://books.google.ca/books?isbn=1620553902 Pagan Magic of the Northern Tradition: Customs, Rites, and Ceremonies]'', 2015.)</ref> The Roman end-of-year celebrations transferred to Epiphany in the Early Middle Ages and later to the Twelve Days of Christmas.

Both Saturnalia and Sol Invictus were overshadowed by Kalends, a new year celebration. While there is no trace of either Saturalia or Sol Invictus persisting into Christian times, various churchmen noted how difficult it was to suppress Kalends.<ref>"In 578 CE a church Council at Auxerre, Burgundy, forbade disguisings, and another Council, in the year 614, stated it was “unlawful to make any indecent plays upon the Kalends of January, according to the profane practices of the pagans.” (Pennick, Nigel, ''[https://books.google.ca/books?isbn=1620553902 Pagan Magic of the Northern Tradition: Customs, Rites, and Ceremonies]'', 2015.)</ref> The Roman end-of-year celebrations transferred to [[Epiphany]] in the Early Middle Ages and later to the Twelve Days of Christmas.

==Modern-day cultural significance==

==Modern-day cultural significance==