Changes

[[Alexander I]] (1801-1825) began his reign as a reformer, but after defeating [[Napoleon]]'s 1812 attempt to conquer Russia, he became much more conservative and rolled back many of his early reforms. During this era, Russia gained control of [[Georgia (Russia)|Georgia]] and much of the [[Caucasus]]. Throughout the 19th century, the Russian Government sought to suppress repeated attempts at reform and attempts at liberation by various national movements, particularly under the reign of [[Nicholas I]] (1825-1855). Its economy failed to compete with those of Western countries. Russian cities were growing without an industrial base to generate employment, although emancipation of the [[serf]]s in 1861 foreshadowed urbanization and rapid industrialization late in the century. At the same time, Russia expanded into the rest of the Caucasus, Central Asia and across [[Siberia]]. The port of [[Vladivostok]] was opened on the Pacific coast in 1860. The [[Trans-Siberian Railroad]] opened vast frontiers to development late in the century. In the 19th century, Russian culture flourished as Russian artists made significant contributions to world literature, visual arts, dance, and music. The names of Dostoyevsky, [[Tolstoy]], Gogal, Repin, and [[Tchaikovsky]] became known to the world.  

[[Alexander I]] (1801-1825) began his reign as a reformer, but after defeating [[Napoleon]]'s 1812 attempt to conquer Russia, he became much more conservative and rolled back many of his early reforms. During this era, Russia gained control of [[Georgia (Russia)|Georgia]] and much of the [[Caucasus]]. Throughout the 19th century, the Russian Government sought to suppress repeated attempts at reform and attempts at liberation by various national movements, particularly under the reign of [[Nicholas I]] (1825-1855). Its economy failed to compete with those of Western countries. Russian cities were growing without an industrial base to generate employment, although emancipation of the [[serf]]s in 1861 foreshadowed urbanization and rapid industrialization late in the century. At the same time, Russia expanded into the rest of the Caucasus, Central Asia and across [[Siberia]]. The port of [[Vladivostok]] was opened on the Pacific coast in 1860. The [[Trans-Siberian Railroad]] opened vast frontiers to development late in the century. In the 19th century, Russian culture flourished as Russian artists made significant contributions to world literature, visual arts, dance, and music. The names of Dostoyevsky, [[Tolstoy]], Gogal, Repin, and [[Tchaikovsky]] became known to the world.  

[[Alexander II]] (1855-1881), a relatively liberal tsar, emancipated the serfs. His 1881 assassination, however, prompted the reactionary rule of [[Alexander III]] (1881-1894). At the turn of the century, imperial decline became evident. Russia was defeated in the unpopular [[Russo-Japanese war]] in 1905. The [[Russian Revolution of 1905]] forced Tsar [[Nicholas II]] (1894-1917) to grant a constitution and introduce limited democratic reforms. The government suppressed opposition and manipulated popular anger into anti-Semitic pogroms. Attempts at economic change, such as land reform, were incomplete.  

[[Alexander II]] (1855-1881), a relatively liberal tsar, emancipated the serfs. His 1881 assassination, however, prompted the reactionary rule of [[Alexander III]] (1881-1894). At the turn of the century, imperial decline became evident. Russia was defeated in the unpopular [[Russo-Japanese War]] in 1905. The [[Russian Revolution of 1905]] forced Tsar [[Nicholas II]] (1894-1917) to grant a constitution and introduce limited democratic reforms. The government suppressed opposition and manipulated popular anger into anti-Semitic pogroms. Attempts at economic change, such as land reform, were incomplete.  

====1917 Revolution and the U.S.S.R.====

====1917 Revolution and the U.S.S.R.====

First among its political figures was Lenin, leader of the Bolshevik Party and head of the first Soviet Government, who died in 1924. In the late 1920s, [[Josef Stalin]] emerged as General Secretary of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU) amidst intra-party rivalries; he maintained complete control over Soviet domestic and international policy until his death in 1953. In the 1930s, Stalin oversaw the forced collectivization of tens of millions of its citizens in state agricultural and industrial enterprises. Millions died in the process. Millions more died in political purges, the vast penal and labor system, and in state-created [[famine]]s. Initially allied to [[Nazi Germany]], which resulted in significant territorial additions on its western border, the U.S.S.R. was attacked by [[the Axis]] on June 22, 1941. Twenty million Soviet citizens died during [[World War II]] in the successful effort to defeat the Axis, in addition to over two million Soviet Jews who perished in [[the Holocaust]]. After the war, the U.S.S.R. became one of the Permanent Members of the [[UN Security Council]]. In 1949, the U.S.S.R. developed its own nuclear arsenal.  

First among its political figures was Lenin, leader of the Bolshevik Party and head of the first Soviet Government, who died in 1924. In the late 1920s, [[Josef Stalin]] emerged as General Secretary of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU) amidst intra-party rivalries; he maintained complete control over Soviet domestic and international policy until his death in 1953. In the 1930s, Stalin oversaw the forced collectivization of tens of millions of its citizens in state agricultural and industrial enterprises. Millions died in the process. Millions more died in political purges, the vast penal and labor system, and in state-created [[famine]]s. Initially allied to [[Nazi Germany]], which resulted in significant territorial additions on its western border, the U.S.S.R. was attacked by [[the Axis]] on June 22, 1941. Twenty million Soviet citizens died during [[World War II]] in the successful effort to defeat the Axis, in addition to over two million Soviet Jews who perished in [[the Holocaust]]. After the war, the U.S.S.R. became one of the Permanent Members of the [[UN Security Council]]. In 1949, the U.S.S.R. developed its own nuclear arsenal.  

Stalin's successor, [[Nikita Khrushchev]], served as Communist Party leader until he was ousted in 1964. Aleksey Kosygin became Chairman of the Council of Ministers, and [[Leonid Brezhnev]] was made First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee in 1964. In 1971, Brezhnev rose to become "first among equals" in a collective leadership. Brezhnev died in 1982 and was succeeded by [[Yuriy Andropov]] (1982-84) and [[Konstantin Chernenko]] (1984-85). In 1985, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] became the next (and last) General Secretary of the CPSU. Gorbachev introduced policies of [[perestroika]] (restructuring) and [[glasnost]] (openness). But his efforts to reform the creaky Communist system from within failed. The people of the Soviet Union were not content with half-freedoms granted by Moscow; they demanded more and the system collapsed. [[Boris Yeltsin]] was elected the first president of the Russian Federation in 1991. Russia, Ukraine and Belarus formed the Commonwealth of Independent States in December 1991. Gorbachev resigned as Soviet President on December 25, 1991. Eleven days later, the U.S.S.R. was formally dissolved.

Stalin's successor, [[Nikita Khrushchev]], served as Communist Party leader until he was ousted in 1964. Aleksey Kosygin became Chairman of the Council of Ministers, and [[Leonid Brezhnev]] was made First Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee in 1964. In 1971, Brezhnev rose to become "first among equals" in a collective leadership. Brezhnev died in 1982 and was succeeded by [[Yuri Andropov]] (1982-84) and [[Konstantin Chernenko]] (1984-85). In 1985, [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] became the next (and last) General Secretary of the CPSU. Gorbachev introduced policies of [[perestroika]] (restructuring) and [[glasnost]] (openness). But his efforts to reform the creaky Communist system from within failed. The people of the Soviet Union were not content with half-freedoms granted by Moscow; they demanded more and the system collapsed. [[Boris Yeltsin]] was elected the first president of the Russian Federation in 1991. Russia, Ukraine and Belarus formed the Commonwealth of Independent States in December 1991. Gorbachev resigned as Soviet President on December 25, 1991. Eleven days later, the U.S.S.R. was formally dissolved.

====The Russian Federation====

====The Russian Federation====