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Newton never married, but he brought his niece to London as his hostess and lived in upper class style.
Newton never married, but he brought his niece to London as his hostess and lived in upper class style.
==annus mirabilis==
==annus mirabilis==
The year 1666 is known as Newton's ''annus mirabilis'' (miraculous year--more precisely the two years 1665-1666), about twenty-four years of age. He latter recalled, "For in those days I was in the prime of my age for invention & minded Mathematicks & Philosophy more than at any time since." (By "philosophy" he meant physics.)
The year 1666 is known as Newton's ''annus mirabilis'' (miraculous year--more precisely the two years 1665-1666), about twenty-four years of age. He later recalled, "For in those days I was in the prime of my age for invention & minded Mathematicks & Philosophy more than at any time since." (By "philosophy" he meant physics.)
===Calculus===
===Calculus===
Critical to his work on calculus was discovering the binomial theorem which expresses areas under curves as infinite series; when the curve is expressed as algebraic formula, he had invented integration. He followed that with a method for differentiation, and came upon the fundamental theorem of the calculus, that of the inverse relation of differentiation and integration. Having invented the calculus, he put aside mathematics for two years and turned to physics.
Critical to his work on calculus was discovering the binomial theorem which expresses areas under curves as infinite series; when the curve is expressed as algebraic formula, he had invented integration. He followed that with a method for differentiation, and came upon the fundamental theorem of the calculus, that of the inverse relation of differentiation and integration. Having invented the calculus, he put aside mathematics for two years and turned to physics.
Newton believed that God's creation of the universe was self evident given its grandeur.<ref>Webb, R.K. ed. Knud Haakonssen. “The emergence of Rational Dissent.” Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1996. p19.</ref> He also warned against using his laws to replace the creator. He said, "Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion. God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done."<ref>Tiner, J.H. (1975). Isaac Newton: Inventor, Scientist and Teacher. Milford, Michigan, U.S.: Mott Media.</ref>
Newton believed that God's creation of the universe was self evident given its grandeur.<ref>Webb, R.K. ed. Knud Haakonssen. “The emergence of Rational Dissent.” Enlightenment and Religion: Rational Dissent in eighteenth-century Britain. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge: 1996. p19.</ref> He also warned against using his laws to replace the creator. He said, "Gravity explains the motions of the planets, but it cannot explain who set the planets in motion. God governs all things and knows all that is or can be done."<ref>Tiner, J.H. (1975). Isaac Newton: Inventor, Scientist and Teacher. Milford, Michigan, U.S.: Mott Media.</ref>
Newton wrote over a million words on religion--nealy all in unpublished hand-written manuscripts and unavailable for research until the 20th century. Although older scholars did not have access to his writings, "Among contemporary scholars, the consensus is that Newton was an Arian," concludes Pfizenmaier (1997).<ref>Thomas C. Pfizenmaier, "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?," ''Journal of the History of Ideas,'' Vol. 58, No. 1 (Jan., 1997), pp. 57-80 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3653988 in JSTOR]</ref>
Newton wrote over a million words on religion--nearly all in unpublished hand-written manuscripts and unavailable for research until the 20th century. Although older scholars did not have access to his writings, "Among contemporary scholars, the consensus is that Newton was an Arian," concludes Pfizenmaier (1997).<ref>Thomas C. Pfizenmaier, "Was Isaac Newton an Arian?," ''Journal of the History of Ideas,'' Vol. 58, No. 1 (Jan., 1997), pp. 57-80 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/3653988 in JSTOR]</ref>
Some older biographers without access to the manuscroipts have speculated, without justification, that Newton's views would today be considered those of a [[Unitarian]],<ref>Bell, E.T. Men of Mathematics.</ref> or an [[Arian]]. Those who reject [[Christ]]'s divinity claim without justification that Newton likewise rejected it. The quotations of Newton that they cite say no such thing.<ref>ISAAC NEWTON'S TWELVE ARTICLES ON GOD AND CHRIST,KEYNES MS 8, KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. http://www.isaacnewton.ca/keynes/Keynes_8.en.html "Artic. 9. We need not pray to Christ to intercede for us. If we pray the father aright he will intercede."</ref>
Some older biographers without access to the manuscripts have speculated, without justification, that Newton's views would today be considered those of a [[Unitarian]],<ref>Bell, E.T. Men of Mathematics.</ref> or an [[Arian]]. Those who reject [[Christ]]'s divinity claim without justification that Newton likewise rejected it. The quotations of Newton that they cite say no such thing.<ref>ISAAC NEWTON'S TWELVE ARTICLES ON GOD AND CHRIST,KEYNES MS 8, KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. http://www.isaacnewton.ca/keynes/Keynes_8.en.html "Artic. 9. We need not pray to Christ to intercede for us. If we pray the father aright he will intercede."</ref>
However, the evidence for Newton holding to Arianism is scant. It is true that Newton held a lot to himself, but to say that because of his association with William Whiston, that he is therefore an Arianist is hardly conclusive. It is more probable that Newton held to an Eastern Orthodox view of the Trinity.<ref>ISAAC NEWTON'S TWELVE ARTICLES ON GOD AND CHRIST,KEYNES MS 8, KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. http://www.isaacnewton.ca/keynes/Keynes_8.en.html "Artic. 12. To us there is but one God the father of whom are all things and we of him, and one Lord Jesus Christ by whom are all things and we by him. That is, we are to worship the father alone as God Almighty and Jesus alone as the Lord the Messiah the great King the Lamb of God who was slain and hath redeemed us with his blood and made us kings and Priests."</ref>
However, the evidence for Newton holding to Arianism is scant. It is true that Newton held a lot to himself, but to say that because of his association with William Whiston, that he is therefore an Arianist is hardly conclusive. It is more probable that Newton held to an Eastern Orthodox view of the Trinity.<ref>ISAAC NEWTON'S TWELVE ARTICLES ON GOD AND CHRIST,KEYNES MS 8, KING'S COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. http://www.isaacnewton.ca/keynes/Keynes_8.en.html "Artic. 12. To us there is but one God the father of whom are all things and we of him, and one Lord Jesus Christ by whom are all things and we by him. That is, we are to worship the father alone as God Almighty and Jesus alone as the Lord the Messiah the great King the Lamb of God who was slain and hath redeemed us with his blood and made us kings and Priests."</ref>
* Westfall, Richard S. "Newton, Sir Isaac (1642–1727)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (2004); online edition
* Westfall, Richard S. "Newton, Sir Isaac (1642–1727)", ''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography'' (2004); online edition
* White, Michael. ''Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer.'' (1998). 416 pp. Newton as alchemist [http://www.questia.com/read/9931462 online edition]
* White, Michael. ''Isaac Newton: The Last Sorcerer.'' (1998). 416 pp. Newton as alchemist [http://www.questia.com/read/9931462 online edition]
===Primary sources===
===Primary sources===
* Newton, Isaac. ''Opticks'' (4th ed. 1730) [http://books.google.com/books?id=GnAFAAAAQAAJ&dq=newton+opticks&pg=PP1&ots=Nnl345oqo_&sig=0mBTaXUI_K6w-JDEu_RvVq5TNqc&prev=http://www.google.com/search%3Fq%3Dnewton%2Bopticks%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:en-us:IE-SearchBox%26ie%3DUTF-8%26oe%3DUTF-8%26sourceid%3Die7%26rlz%3D1I7GGLJ&sa=X&oi=print&ct=title&cad=one-book-with-thumbnail online edition]
* Newton, Isaac. ''Opticks'' (4th ed. 1730) [http://books.google.com/books?id=GnAFAAAAQAAJ&dq=newton+opticks&pg=PP1&ots=Nnl345oqo_&sig=0mBTaXUI_K6w-JDEu_RvVq5TNqc&prev=http://www.google.com/search%3Fq%3Dnewton%2Bopticks%26rls%3Dcom.microsoft:en-us:IE-SearchBox%26ie%3DUTF-8%26oe%3DUTF-8%26sourceid%3Die7%26rlz%3D1I7GGLJ&sa=X&oi=print&ct=title&cad=one-book-with-thumbnail online edition]
* Newton, Isaac. ''The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton,'' 8 vols. (Cambridge University Press, 1967–81).
* Newton, Isaac. ''The Mathematical Papers of Isaac Newton,'' 8 vols. (Cambridge University Press, 1967–81).
* Newton, Isaac. ''The correspondence of Isaac Newton,'' ed. H. W. Turnbull and others, 7 vols. (1959–77) ·
* Newton, Isaac. ''The correspondence of Isaac Newton,'' ed. H. W. Turnbull and others, 7 vols. (1959–77).
* Brackenridge, J. Bruce. ''The Key to Newton's Dynamics: The Kepler Problem and the Principia: Containing an English Translation of Sections 1, 2, and 3 of Book One from the First (1687) Edition of Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.'' U. of California Press, 1996. 299 pp.
* Brackenridge, J. Bruce. ''The Key to Newton's Dynamics: The Kepler Problem and the Principia: Containing an English Translation of Sections 1, 2, and 3 of Book One from the First (1687) Edition of Newton's Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy.'' U. of California Press, 1996. 299 pp.
* ''Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from His Writings'' edited by H. S. Thayer, (1953), [http://www.questia.com/read/5876270 online edition]
* ''Newton's Philosophy of Nature: Selections from His Writings'' edited by H. S. Thayer, (1953), [http://www.questia.com/read/5876270 online edition]