Changes

Last week we addressed the major early ancient cultures: Mesopotamia and Egypt.  This week it becomes even more interesting as we begin to address the "classical" period of World history: 1000 B.C. to A.D. 500.   

Last week we addressed the major early ancient cultures: Mesopotamia and Egypt.  This week it becomes even more interesting as we begin to address the "classical" period of World history: 1000 B.C. to A.D. 500.   

During this period, five different regions of the world had civilizations that advanced the frontiers of knowledge, government and the arts.  Most of them developed independently of each other, because there was very little communication across long distances in the ancient world.  No telephones or the internet existed yet!  To pass a message from Asia to Europe required a dangerous trip of many months by a messenger.

During this period, five different regions of the world had civilizations that advanced the frontiers of knowledge, government and the arts.  Most of them developed independently of each other, because there was very little communication across long distances in the ancient world.  No telephones or the internet existed yet, and sending a message from one side of Europe to the other required a dangerous trip of many weeks or months by a messenger.  Good roads did not exist, and the message may never reach its intended destination.

The five "classical" civilizations were India, China, Greece, Rome and, to a lesser extent, the Americas (in what is now Mexico and South America).  We devote this week to what many consider the greatest civilization ever: classical Greece.  It was the birthplace of democracy, along with many other insights and advances, including the development of the language that served as the foundation for Christianity.  Let's begin.

The five "classical" civilizations were India, China, Greece, Rome and, to a lesser extent, the Americas (in what is now Mexico and South America).  We devote this week to what many consider as the greatest civilization ever: classical Greece.  It was the birthplace of democracy, along with many other insights and advances.  It was ancient Greece that developed the first language powerful enough to express the concepts at the foundation for Christianity and to enable those principles to be spread throughout the world.  Let's begin by looking at language.

== Language ==

== Language ==

The study of the development of language is a fascinating aspect of World history.  Language is extremely important to the progress and survival of a society.  Peoples who only had primitive languages were easily conquered by groups that had more powerful languages.  Language expresses and communicates ideas: it is difficult, if not impossible, to think about and communicate powerful ideas without language to express them.

Linguistics, which means the study of language, is a fascinating aspect of World history.  A language is essential to the progress and survival of a society; the better the language, the most successful the society is likely to become.  Peoples who only had primitive languages were easily conquered by groups that had more powerful languages.  Language expresses and communicates ideas, and facilitates trade that brings wealth to a civilization. Observe for yourself how difficult it is, if not impossible, to think about and remember an idea without a term to express it.  What term would one use, for example, to describe someone who promotes a belief system that encourages terrorism, yet does not engage in terrorism himself?  The lack of a good term for that person makes it difficult to criticism him.  Similarly, a person who is constantly spewing profanity is unlikely to be thinking anything better.  People are a product of the language they use, and a society is dependent on the intelligence of its language.

'''Mystery: What was the level of literacy in ancient civilizations? Was it higher or lower than literacy today?'''

For example, the term “homeschooling” did not exist until about about 1980 (check your own dictionary and it should state when a word was first used). Once the term was created, the homeschooling movement was able to grow far faster than when the term did not exist.  Without the term, how could one tell others how good something is? 

 

The term “politically correct” is another example of how language influences thinking. Without the existence of the term, which did not arise until _____, the concept it represents is very hard to express and remember.  It is much more difficult to criticize “political correctness” when there is a lack of a good term to use.

The roots of all languages are in the basic aspects of life, such as the observation of tangible things like animals and food.  But much more is needed to express ideas about what is not seen, such as religious concepts.  Christianity could not develop and spread without a language capable of communicating its concepts.  Had Christ come into this world in 2000 or 1000 B.C., would there have been a language powerful enough to express His ideas?  Probably not.  An example is the “Holy Spirit.”  Few languages can express what is really meant by this.  The Greek words “pneuma” (wind or breath) and “paraclete” (advocate or one who consoles) are what the Gospel of John uses, and those words capture the driving force of the Holy Spirit.  The English word “spirit” is not even powerful enough to express what Jesus meant.  Most languages in the world have smaller vocabularies than English, and have even greater difficulty capturing the essence of what we call the “Holy Spirit.”

All languages develop based on common and basic aspects of life, such as language needed to describe food, animals, daily activities and commerce or trade (like the word “coin”).  But much more is needed in language in order to express ideas about what is not seen, such as religious concepts.  Christianity could not develop and spread without a language capable of communicating its concepts.  Had Christ come into this world in 2000 or 1000 B.C., was there have been a language powerful enough to express His ideas?  Maybe not.  Ancient Hebrew lacked vowels, and the non-Hebrew languages were primitive. 

An example of a concept that Jesus needed to express was the “Holy Spirit.”  Few languages can convey the full meaning of this concept.  The Greek words “pneuma” (wind or breath) and “paraclete” (advocate or one who consoles) are what the Gospel of John uses, and those words capture the driving force of the Holy Spirit.  The English word “spirit” struggles to convey the full meaning of the Greek.  Most languages in the world have smaller vocabularies than English, and thus have even greater difficulty capturing the essence of what we call the “Holy Spirit.”

Another example is the last utterance on the cross by Jesus, typically translated as “it is finished” (John 19:30 (King James Version)).  But the actual Greek term was used in commerce at the time to mean “paid in full.”  So a better translation would be “it is accomplished,” but even that does not fully capture the concept of redemption of the sin that was outstanding.  Check your Bible to see how it translates John 19:30.

Another example is the last utterance on the cross by Jesus, typically translated as “it is finished.”<ref>John 19:30 (King James Version).</ref> But in the last century it was discovered that the actual Greek term was by John had this meaning in commerce in the 1st century: “paid in full.”  So now some translate these final words by Christ “it is accomplished.” But even that may not fully capture the concept of redemption of the sin that existed.  Check your Bible to see how it translates John 19:30.

   

   

Recall that the language of Mesopotamia was cuneiform, based on wedge-like characters.  But in the 1000s B.C., and perhaps earlier, a marvelous new form of language developed among the traders on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, where Lebanon is today.  The Phoenicians lived there and established towns such as Byblos, a religious center after which the Bible is named because the town exported papyrus.  The Phoenicians had ports and sea-traders would pick up exports such as fine linen, cedar, pine wood, dyed cloth, wine, glass, salt, dried fish, and embroideries.  The Phoenicians traded with the Hebrews, who used the cedars of Lebanon to build Solomon’s temple.  Colonies of the Phoenicians included Tyre, Sidon and, along the coast of Northern Africa, Carthage.  Carthage later became powerful enough to compete with Rome.  The Assyrian empire, which was the world’s first real empire, invaded the Phoenicians in the 500s B.C., causing them to collapse.

<>Recall that the language of Mesopotamia was cuneiform, based on wedge-like characters.  But in the 1000s B.C., and perhaps earlier, a marvelous new form of language developed among the traders on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea, where Lebanon is today.  The Phoenicians lived there and established towns such as Byblos, a religious center after which the Bible is named because the town exported papyrus.  The Phoenicians had ports and sea-traders would pick up exports such as fine linen, cedar, pine wood, dyed cloth, wine, glass, salt, dried fish, and embroideries.  The Phoenicians traded with the Hebrews, who used the cedars of Lebanon to build Solomon’s temple.  Colonies of the Phoenicians included Tyre, Sidon and, along the coast of Northern Africa, Carthage.  Carthage later became powerful enough to compete with Rome.  The Assyrian empire, which was the world’s first real empire, invaded the Phoenicians in the 500s B.C., causing them to collapse.

The new language developed by the Phoenicians to facilitate their trading was based on a new alphabet of 22 letters.  All Western alphabets, such as English and French and Italian and Greek and Latin, are based on this Phoenician alphabet.  This was one of the greatest advances in the history of mankind, perhaps as great as the invention of the wheel, because now language could begin to describe powerful concepts and abstract ideas.  This laid the foundation for the accomplishments of Ancient Greece, which in turn laid the foundation for the teaching and spread of Christianity.

The new language developed by the Phoenicians to facilitate their trading was based on a new alphabet of 22 letters.  All Western alphabets, such as English and French and Italian and Greek and Latin, are based on this Phoenician alphabet.  This was one of the greatest advances in the history of mankind, perhaps as great as the invention of the wheel, because now language could begin to describe powerful concepts and abstract ideas.  This laid the foundation for the accomplishments of Ancient Greece, which in turn laid the foundation for the teaching and spread of Christianity.

   

   

== Ancient Greece ==

== Ancient Greece ==

In contrast, the Stoics — founded by Zeno (333-264 B.C.) in the early third century B.C. — sought to find a sense of divine justice.  They de-emphasized emotion and feelings, teaching that both plain and pleasure should be disregarded.  Instead, cool-headed reason and logic should be used at all times and self-indulgence denied.   

In contrast, the Stoics — founded by Zeno (333-264 B.C.) in the early third century B.C. — sought to find a sense of divine justice.  They de-emphasized emotion and feelings, teaching that both plain and pleasure should be disregarded.  Instead, cool-headed reason and logic should be used at all times and self-indulgence denied.   

Some historians have even speculated that Jesus spoke Greek and that the Apostles may have originally written the Gospels in that language.  The traditional view is that Jesus and the Apostles spoke in Aramaic, the colloquial language of that region and time.  Many of Jesus’ sayings are quoted directly in Aramaic, including Talitha cum, which means, “Little girl, get up!” (Mark 5:41). Also, Abba (“Father”; Mark 14:36; Gal.4:6; Rom.8:15); Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani (“My God, my God, why have you forsaken me”; Mark 15:34); Cephas (“Peter”; John 1:42); Mammon (“Wealth”; Matt.6:24, RSV); Raca (“Fool”; Matt.5:22, RSV).  Linguists can even pinpoint Jesus’ dialect to be western Aramaic associated with Galilee, rather than the Aramaic dialect spoken in Jerusalem.

 

 

Some historians have even speculated that Jesus spoke Greek and that the Apostles may have originally written the Gospels in that language.  The traditional view is that Jesus and the Apostles spoke in Aramaic, the colloquial language of that region and time.  Many of Jesus’ sayings are quoted directly in Aramaic, including Talitha cum, which means, “Little girl, get up!” (Mark 5:41). Also, Abba (“Father”; Mark 14:36; Gal.4:6; Rom.8:15); Eloi, Eloi, lama sabachthani (“My God, my God, why have you forsaken me”; Mark 15:34); Cephas (“Peter”; John 1:42); Mammon (“Wealth”; Matt.6:24, RSV); Raca (“Fool”; Matt. 5:22, RSV).  Linguists can even pinpoint Jesus’ dialect to be western Aramaic associated with Galilee, rather than the Aramaic dialect spoken in Jerusalem. But notice how the Aramaic sayings were never part of His teachings, but were slang, names, or speech related in some way to childhood.

 

 

But the powerful Greek language would have been useful to Jesus in teaching.  Greek was in common use by Jewish people in Palestine, thanks in part to the conquest by Alexander the Great.  Greek was even widely used in Jewish ossuaries to bury the dead.  Commerce would have often occurred in Greek, and Jesus had been in business as a carpenter.  He surely knew the language.  Several of the key terms, such as Jesus’ criticism of the Pharisees as “hypocrites”, is derived directly from Greek without any comparable term in Aramaic or Hebrew.  Several of the Apostles have Greek names (e.g., Andrew and Philip). There has been no discovered book in the New Testament written in Aramaic or Hebrew that predates the Greek versions.  For an interesting presentation of this Greek view, see: http://www.triumphpro.com/did_jesus_and_the_apostles_speak_greek.htm

Regardless of whether Jesus taught in Greek, the oldest manuscripts of the Gospels were written in Greek.  But it is a form of Greek known as “biblical Greek.” Biblical Greek is was a product of the confluence or combination of the Jewish and Greek cultures in Palestine in the 1st century A.D.  Biblical Greek is different from classical Greek that preceded it, and different from Hellenistic Greek that came later. The New Testament has 550 Greek words that scholars could not find anywhere else, and some of the Greek syntax in the New Testament is odd.  Anti-Christians used these facts to criticize the New Testament and the religion of Christianity, and even mock us.

Slavery existed widely in Greece, using both Greeks and non-Greeks (Russians and also African slaves bought from Egypt).  Criminals and people who could not pay their debts were enslaved.  The harshest treatment of slaves was of criminals put to work in the Athenian silver mines.

Then in the 1800s archaeologists discovered Greek papyri manuscripts that had been buried in the hot sand in Egypt, which preserved them beautifully.  These manuscripts included all kinds of literary and legal documents, in Greek.  Nearly all of the unusual New Testament Greek words were found used in ordinary writings in these manuscripts.  After examination of these Egyptian manuscripts, the preeminent German scholar Adolf Deissmann concluded what Christians had known all along:  the New Testament was simply written in the Greek language of the common man in the 1st century A.D.

== The Hellenistic Age ==

== The Hellenistic Age ==