Changes

Meanwhile, artistic pursuits flourished during this period in Spain.  El Greco (1541-1614), a painter, architect and sculptor best known for his paintings of saints and martyrs, and drew a stunning image of a storm over a Spanish town (“A View of Toledo”).  Diego Velázquez painted portraits of the royal family and scenes from daily life at court.  In 1605 Miguel de Cervantes wrote the novel Don Quixote, probably the most influential piece of Spanish literature, and Lope de Vega wrote an estimated 2,000 plays.

Meanwhile, artistic pursuits flourished during this period in Spain.  El Greco (1541-1614), a painter, architect and sculptor best known for his paintings of saints and martyrs, and drew a stunning image of a storm over a Spanish town (“A View of Toledo”).  Diego Velázquez painted portraits of the royal family and scenes from daily life at court.  In 1605 Miguel de Cervantes wrote the novel Don Quixote, probably the most influential piece of Spanish literature, and Lope de Vega wrote an estimated 2,000 plays.

In Russia, absolute emperors known as “czars” arose.  The first czar of Russia was Ivan IV “the Terrible,” who executed many innocent people during his fearful reign from 1533 to 1547.  Ivan was succeeded by his son Feodor, whose repeated failures led Russia into a “Time of Troubles.”  In 1613, the first of a long line of Romanov czars, Mikhail Romanov, took the throne.  Under Romanov rule, serfs lost almost all of their freedoms.   Peter the Great, another Romanov who ruled Russia from 1682 to 1696, instituted sweeping reforms in Russian government and society.  He built St. Petersburg and tried to make European traditions a part of Russia.  In the Great Northern War against Sweden, new territories were gained.  Other absolutist rulers arose, such as the Hapsburg Empress Maria Theresa in Austria, and the Hohenzollern Frederick the Great from Prussia.  These two rulers clashed in the War of the Austrian Succession, in which Frederick won the territory Silesia.   

In Russia, absolute emperors known as “czars” arose.  The first czar of Russia was Ivan IV “the Terrible,” who executed many innocent people during his fearful reign from 1533 to 1547.  Ivan was succeeded by his son Feodor, whose repeated failures led Russia into a “Time of Troubles.”  In 1613, the first of a long line of Romanov czars, Mikhail Romanov, took the throne.  Under Romanov rule, serfs lost almost all of their freedoms. Peter the Great, another Romanov who ruled Russia from 1682 to 1696, instituted sweeping reforms in Russian government and society.  He built St. Petersburg and tried to make European traditions a part of Russia.  In the Great Northern War against Sweden, new territories were gained.  Other absolutist rulers arose, such as the Hapsburg Empress Maria Theresa in Austria, and the Hohenzollern Frederick the Great from Prussia.  These two rulers clashed in the War of the Austrian Succession, in which Frederick won the territory Silesia.   

Europeans during this era desired a “balance of power” that would prevent any single nation from becoming most powerful.  The expression of this idea was seen in the intense competition and warfare between the various European nations for control in Europe, especially with the Thirty Years’ War.  The war initially began as a religious conflict in Germany between Bohemian Protestants and Hapsburg Catholics in 1618.  However, it soon became a political conflict for power that involved Spain, Holland, Denmark, France, Switzerland and The Holy Roman Empire.  The Treaty of Westphalia finally marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War in 1648.  The war significantly weakened Germany and the Holy Roman Empire, as well as Austria and Spain.  Although France was largely a Catholic country, it had chosen the side of the winning Protestants in order to oppose the Holy Roman Empire, and France emerged strengthened and more unified as a result.

Europeans during this era desired a “balance of power” that would prevent any single nation from becoming most powerful.  The expression of this idea was seen in the intense competition and warfare between the various European nations for control in Europe, especially with the Thirty Years’ War.  The war initially began as a religious conflict in Germany between Bohemian Protestants and Hapsburg Catholics in 1618.  However, it soon became a political conflict for power that involved Spain, Holland, Denmark, France, Switzerland and The Holy Roman Empire.  The Treaty of Westphalia finally marked the end of the Thirty Years’ War in 1648.  The war significantly weakened Germany and the Holy Roman Empire, as well as Austria and Spain.  Although France was largely a Catholic country, it had chosen the side of the winning Protestants in order to oppose the Holy Roman Empire, and France emerged strengthened and more unified as a result.