Changes

In the 1700s, all the revolutions were quite bloody, entailing violence and great losses of life and limb.  Nearly every region of the world saw violent revolutions.  There was the American Revolution, which began with bloodshed in 1775 (Lexington and Concord and the ride of Paul Revere), and then the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, and ultimately the conclusion with the Treaty of Paris in 1783.  There were also many other revolutions, including ones in Mexico, Haiti, South America, China and France.  We will learn about all of them here, spending most of our time on the French Revolution.

In the 1700s, all the revolutions were quite bloody, entailing violence and great losses of life and limb.  Nearly every region of the world saw violent revolutions.  There was the American Revolution, which began with bloodshed in 1775 (Lexington and Concord and the ride of Paul Revere), and then the Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776, and ultimately the conclusion with the Treaty of Paris in 1783.  There were also many other revolutions, including ones in Mexico, Haiti, South America, China and France.  We will learn about all of them here, spending most of our time on the French Revolution.

Beginning in 1800, a new leader had a dramatic effect on Europe:  Napoleon Bonaparte, known to the world as simply Napoleon.  He possessed a combination of military genius, unlimited ambition, leadership and a brilliant overall mind like Alexander the Great of the ancient Greek world.  Napoleon had an ambition and drive that were so great that the term “Napoleonic complex” is still used today to describe a power-hungry, diminutive person intent on taking over everything in sight.  But just as Alexander the Great could not capture India and the Mongols could not take Japan, Napoleon could not conquer Russia in the wintertime.  Over a century later, the German Adolf Hitler also failed in a similar attempt.  Once Napoleon failed, other nations in Europe began to rise in power.

Beginning in 1800, a new leader had a dramatic effect on Europe:  Napoleon Bonaparte, known to the world as simply Napoleon.  He possessed a combination of military genius, unlimited ambition, leadership and a brilliant overall mind like Alexander the Great of the ancient Greek world.  Napoleon had an ambition and drive that were so great that the term “Napoleon complex” is still used today to describe a power-hungry, diminutive person intent on taking over everything in sight.  But just as Alexander the Great could not capture India and the Mongols could not take Japan, Napoleon could not conquer Russia in the wintertime.  Over a century later, the German Adolf Hitler also failed in a similar attempt.  Once Napoleon failed, other nations in Europe began to rise in power.

Some monarchs (kings or queens) avoided or delayed revolutions by becoming “enlightened despots” in order to conform to the Enlightenment ideas of good government.  These rulers attempted or pretended to put the well-being of the people and the state ahead of the monarchs’ own preferences.  Examples were Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia (the most powerful of the German states), and the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II of Austria.  Often these reforms included some freedom of religion and speech, as allowed by Joseph II and Frederick the Great.  Catherine the Great continued to modernize Russia as Peter the Great had done, but she also participated with Prussia and Austria in carving up Poland in the First, Second and Third Partitions (1772, 1793 and 1795) such that Poland did not exist again as a separate nation until after World War I.  Catherine the Great also gave increased power to the Russian nobles over the serfs in order to appease the nobles.

Some monarchs (kings or queens) avoided or delayed revolutions by becoming “enlightened despots” in order to conform to the Enlightenment ideas of good government.  These rulers attempted or pretended to put the well-being of the people and the state ahead of the monarchs’ own preferences.  Examples were Catherine the Great of Russia, Frederick II (the Great) of Prussia (the most powerful of the German states), and the Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II of Austria.  Often these reforms included some freedom of religion and speech, as allowed by Joseph II and Frederick the Great.  Catherine the Great continued to modernize Russia as Peter the Great had done, but she also participated with Prussia and Austria in carving up Poland in the First, Second and Third Partitions (1772, 1793 and 1795) such that Poland did not exist again as a separate nation until after World War I.  Catherine the Great also gave increased power to the Russian nobles over the serfs in order to appease the nobles.

==Religious Conflict in England==

==Religious Conflict in England==

In the 1600s, the major European countries adhered to the “divine right of kings,” such that the authority of a king came from God.  But in England, unlike the countries in continental Europe, there was a constitutional monarchy that required the king to obey the law and share power with the Parliament.  In all the other countries the king (or queen) simply did what he wanted.

In the 1600s, the major European countries adhered to the doctrine of “divine right of kings,” holding that the authority of a king came from God.  But in England, unlike the countries in continental Europe, there was after the 'Glorious Revolution' of 1688 a constitutional monarchy that required the king to obey the law and share power with the Parliament.  In all the other countries the king (or queen) by and large simply did what he (or she) wanted.

The sharing of power between the King of England and the Parliament caused continual conflict, some of it religious in nature.  The religious disagreements between the Church of England, the Puritans, the Quakers and other Christian faiths caused many to flee to the new colonies in America to establish religious communities free from persecution in England.  But note that many of these Christian denominations, such as the Puritans, did not believe in religious freedom for others any more than the Church of England did.

The sharing of power between the King of England and the Parliament caused continual conflict, some of it religious in nature.  The religious disagreements between the Church of England, the Puritans, the Quakers and other Christian faiths caused many to flee to the new colonies in America to establish religious communities free from persecution in England.  But note that many of these Christian denominations, such as the Puritans (who were a tendency, strictly speaking, rather than a denomination), did not believe in religious freedom for others any more than the Church of England did.

After the founder of the Church of England (King Henry VIII) died in 1547, there were three noteworthy monarchs: Elizabeth I, James I and Charles I.  Queen Elizabeth took the throne in 1558, about a decade after King Henry VIII, and remains the most popular English monarch in history.  She ruled for nearly 45 years, until her death in 1603, and had two remarkable accomplishments:  she deftly managed Parliament and many religious conflicts, and she crushed the massive Spanish Armada that attempted to invade England in 1588.  A Protestant who was eventually excommunicated by the Catholic Church, Elizabeth obtained the “Religious Settlement” from Parliament in 1559 that funded the Church of England and set many rules for it (like the ability of its clergy to marry) that remain to this day.  Queen Elizabeth’s successful rule is known as the “Elizabethan Age.”

After the founder of the Church of England (King Henry VIII) died in 1547, there were three noteworthy monarchs: Elizabeth I, James I and Charles I.  Queen Elizabeth took the throne in 1558, about a decade after King Henry VIII, and remains the most popular English monarch in history.  She ruled for nearly 45 years, until her death in 1603, and had two remarkable accomplishments:  she deftly managed Parliament and many religious conflicts, and she crushed the massive Spanish Armada that attempted to invade England in 1588.  A Protestant who was eventually excommunicated by the Catholic Church, Elizabeth obtained the “Religious Settlement” from Parliament in 1559 that funded the Church of England and set many rules for it (like the ability of its clergy to marry) that remain to this day.  Queen Elizabeth’s successful rule is known as the “Elizabethan Age.”

Queen Elizabeth was known as the “Virgin Queen.”  It was during her reign that Sir Walter Raleigh received a charter to establish the first English settlement in North America.  This first charter named the region “Virginia” in 1584 in honor of the “Virgin Queen.”  Notice how few Americans learn this origin of the name of the state of Virginia.<ref>http://www.e-referencedesk.com/resources/state-name/virginia.html</ref>

Queen Elizabeth was known as the “Virgin Queen” as she never married and practiced [[abstinence]]. It was during her reign that Sir Walter Raleigh received a charter to establish the first English settlement in North America.  This first charter named the region “Virginia” in 1584 in honor of the “Virgin Queen.”  Notice how few Americans learn this origin of the name of the state of Virginia.<ref>http://www.e-referencedesk.com/resources/state-name/virginia.html</ref>

Queen Elizabeth never married and had no heirs.  After her death in 1603, her cousin James Stuart, King James VI of Scotland, took the English throne as James I.  The King James Version of the Bible, first published in 1611, was the magnificent English translation funded by his reign.  This stunning work greatly influenced the development of the English language for centuries to come.  But unlike Elizabeth, James I fought frequently with Parliament.   

Queen Elizabeth never married and had no heirs.  After her death in 1603, her cousin James Stuart, King James VI of Scotland, took the English throne as James I.  The King James Version of the Bible, first published in 1611, was the magnificent English translation funded by his reign.  This stunning work greatly influenced the development of the English language for centuries to come.  But unlike Elizabeth, James I fought frequently with Parliament.   

It was during the reign of James I in 1605 that the “Gunpowder Plot” was discovered. It supposedly consisted of a conspiracy to assassinate the Anglican King James I and his ministers at the State Opening of Parliament by exploding of barrels of gunpowder placed in the cellar of the building. Amazingly, perhaps too amazingly to be credible, the barrels of gunpowder were "discovered" just beforehand and Catholic Guy Fawkes was executed along with other Catholics for an alleged conspiracy. The ''Oxford Dictionary of World History'' notes the the possibility that the Protestant statesman Robert Cecil (who helped install James I to the throne) “manufactured the plot” to influence public opinion at a time of religious conflict.<ref>Oxford Dictionary of World History, p. 262 (paperback ed. 2001).</ref> British people commemorate this event annually on November 5th, with festivities that include bonfires, fireworks and burning effigies.

It was during the reign of James I in 1605 that the “Gunpowder Plot” was discovered. It supposedly consisted of a conspiracy to assassinate the Anglican King James I and his ministers at the State Opening of Parliament by exploding of barrels of gunpowder placed in the cellar of the building. Amazingly, perhaps too amazingly to be credible, the barrels of gunpowder were "discovered" just beforehand (possibly because one of the plotters tipped off a relative about the plans) and Catholic Guy Fawkes was executed along with other Catholics for an alleged conspiracy. The ''Oxford Dictionary of World History'' notes the the possibility that the Protestant statesman Robert Cecil (who helped install James I to the throne) “manufactured the plot” to influence public opinion at a time of religious conflict.<ref>Oxford Dictionary of World History, p. 262 (paperback ed. 2001).</ref> English people commemorate this event annually on November 5th, with festivities that include bonfires, fireworks and burning effigies.

Charles I became the king in 1625 and conflicts worsened between King Charles I and Parliament.  Charles I needed funding in 1628, but Parliament refused unless Charles signed the Petition of Right.  This important document would have limited the powers of the king in four significant ways.  The king could no longer imprison people without good reason, or force people to house soldiers in their private homes, or impose taxes without the consent of Parliament, or impose martial (military) law during peacetime.  The king’s power would be greatly weakened by this Petition.  Charles accepted the Petition, but refused to abide by it.

Charles I became the king in 1625 and conflicts worsened between the Crown and Parliament.  Charles I needed funding in 1628, but Parliament refused unless Charles signed the Petition of Right.  This important document would have limited the powers of the king in four significant ways.  The king could no longer imprison people without good reason, or force people to house soldiers in their private homes, or impose taxes without the consent of Parliament, or impose martial (military) law during peacetime.  The king’s power would be greatly weakened by this Petition.  Charles accepted the Petition, but refused to abide by it.

Charles also refused to give religious freedom to Puritans in England and Presbyterians in Scotland.  This and a dispute over the power of the royalty led to the religious English Civil War from 1642 to 1649, whereupon the Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell emerged victorious.  King Charles was then tried and publicly executed.  This was the first execution of a king by his own people in history, setting an example that future revolutions imitated.

Charles also refused to give religious freedom to Puritans in England and Presbyterians in Scotland.  This and a dispute over the power of the royalty led to the religious English Civil War from 1642 to 1649, whereupon the Puritan leader Oliver Cromwell emerged victorious.  King Charles was then tried and publicly executed.  This was the first execution of a king by his own people in history, setting an example that future revolutions imitated.