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===America===

===America===

The American Revolution, beginning with the Declaration of Independence in 1776, was led by a small percentage of the colonists.  Amazingly, there were just as many Loyalists (pro-British) as Patriots (pro-revolutionaries).  Like the French Revolution discussed below, the American Revolution was instigated by an educated middle class.  The ideas were powerful in the Declaration of Independence, which 33-year-old Thomas Jefferson drafted with other Founders using the [[Virginia Declaration of Rights]], which had been drafted by Founder George Mason.  Invoking the authority of God frequently throughout the document, the Declaration contains the most striking legal statement of all time:  “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.”  The phrase “that all men are created equal” was original to the Declaration of Independence and was quoted frequently by Abraham Lincoln (e.g., in his Gettysburg Address) and by other future Americans.

The American Revolution, beginning with the Declaration of Independence in 1776, was led by a small percentage of the colonists.  There were just as many Loyalists (pro-British) as Patriots (pro-revolutionaries).  Like the French Revolution discussed below, the American Revolution was instigated by an educated middle class.  The ideas were powerful in the Declaration of Independence, which 33-year-old Thomas Jefferson drafted with other Founders using the [[Virginia Declaration of Rights]], which had been drafted by Founder George Mason.  Invoking the authority of God frequently throughout the document, the Declaration contains the most striking legal statement of all time:  “We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.”  The phrase “that all men are created equal” was original to the Declaration of Independence and was quoted frequently by Abraham Lincoln (e.g., in his Gettysburg Address) and by other future Americans.

The Declaration of Independence drew upon Christianity and the Enlightenment English philosopher John Locke.  In his famous work “Two Treatises on Government” (1690), Locke declared that all men have the natural (inalienable) rights of “life, liberty and estate (property).”  Adam Smith, the great economist, modified this to be “life, liberty and the pursuit of property.”  Notably the Declaration of Independence does not emphasize a right to pursue property, however, instead speaking in favor of pursuit of “happiness”.   

The Declaration of Independence drew upon Christianity and the Enlightenment English philosopher John Locke.  In his famous work “Two Treatises on Government” (1690), Locke declared that all men have the natural (inalienable) rights of “life, liberty and estate (property).”  Adam Smith, the great economist, modified this to be “life, liberty and the pursuit of property.”  Notably the Declaration of Independence does not emphasize a right to pursue property, however, instead speaking in favor of pursuit of “happiness”.   

===Napoleon’s Empire===

===Napoleon’s Empire===

Napoleon was smart, ambitious, and a tremendous leader.  Quickly, by 1802, Napoleon had signed peace treaties with all his major enemies in the Second Coalition against France, including Great Britain, Russia and Austria.  He then improved France immensely with reformed taxation, better finance through use of a national bank, a successful system of laws known as the Napoleonic Code, and even a public school system.  But all was not for the better.  Napoleon repealed a ban on slavery in the French Caribbean, restricted freedom of speech and the press, and did not allow women to have the same property rights as men.

Napoleon was smart, ambitious, and a tremendous leader.  By 1802, Napoleon had signed peace treaties with all his major enemies in the Second Coalition against France, including Great Britain, Russia and Austria.  He then improved France immensely with reformed taxation, better finance through use of a national bank, a successful system of laws known as the Napoleonic Code, and even a public school system.  But all was not for the better.  Napoleon repealed a ban on slavery in the French Caribbean, restricted freedom of speech and the press, and did not allow women to have the same property rights as men.

Napoleon needed cash to fight a new Third Coalition against him, and also to pay for a failed attempt to quell a rebellion against France in the Caribbean Saint Dominigue (Haiti).  To raise cash, Napoleon sold the massive territory from present-day Louisiana through the American Northwest.  The southern region that is now the American State of Louisiana had already implemented the Napoleonic Code, and still uses it to this day (unlike the other 49 states of the United States).  Napoleon sold this massive tract of land to the United States for a few million dollars in 1803, in what Americans call the “Louisiana Purchase” (it included far more than what is now the State of Louisiana).  Then, in 1804, Napoleon declared himself emperor of France and proceeded to conquer or acquire as much territory in Europe as possible.  He did very well until he failed to conquer Great Britain, which had a superior navy that defeated Napoleon’s fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805.  English Admiral Horatio Nelson was the hero of that battle.

Napoleon needed cash to fight a new Third Coalition against him, and also to pay for a failed attempt to quell a rebellion against France in the Caribbean Saint Dominigue (Haiti).  To raise cash, Napoleon sold the massive territory from present-day Louisiana through the American Northwest.  The southern region that is now the American State of Louisiana had already implemented the Napoleonic Code, and still uses it to this day (unlike the other 49 states of the United States).  Napoleon sold this massive tract of land to the United States for a few million dollars in 1803, in what Americans call the “Louisiana Purchase” (it included far more than what is now the State of Louisiana).  Then, in 1804, Napoleon declared himself emperor of France and proceeded to conquer or acquire as much territory in Europe as possible.  He did very well until he failed to conquer Great Britain, which had a superior navy that defeated Napoleon’s fleet at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805.  English Admiral Horatio Nelson was the hero of that battle.

===China===

===China===

The movements towards revolution and nationalism spread to China.  [[Sun Yixian]] was just one of the many Chinese inspired by the unified nations arising in Europe.  A rebellion arose in 1911, which ended the rules of the Qing (also known as Manchu) dynasty.  Confucianism was rejected by the reformers, who viewed it as old-fashioned, and reforms were sought to give more rights to workers and the poor.  The revolutions did not resolve much, but marked the beginning of a period of strife and unrest for China in the early 1900s, which would lead to its establishment as a Communist nation in later decades.

The movements towards revolution and nationalism spread to China.  [[Sun Yixian]] was just one of the many Chinese inspired by the unified nations arising in Europe.  A rebellion arose in 1911, which ended the rule of the Qing (also known as Manchu) dynasty.  Confucianism was rejected by the reformers, who viewed it as old-fashioned, and reforms were sought to give more rights to workers and the poor.  The revolutions did not resolve much, but marked the beginning of a period of strife and unrest for China in the early 1900s, which would lead to its establishment as a Communist nation in later decades.

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==Revolutionary Art and Literature==

==Revolutionary Art and Literature==

In the early 1800s, art (including music) and literature underwent “revolutions” similar to the political ones.  Romanticism was the major artistic movement, reflecting an emphasis on thoughts, feelings and nature.  Lord Byron was a leading romanticist who fought for the independence of Greece.  This emphasis on feelings mirrored a political romanticism that promoted democracy and the needs of the “common man,” or everyday person.

In the early 1800s, art (including music) and literature underwent “revolutions” similar to the political ones.  Romanticism was the major artistic movement, reflecting an emphasis on thoughts, feelings and nature.  Lord Byron was a leading romanticist who fought for the independence of Greece.  This emphasis on feelings mirrored a political romanticism that promoted democracy and the needs of the “common man,” or everyday person.

In music, the greatest composer in the history of the world burst onto the scene in the early 1800s:  Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827).  He revolutionized instrumental music and took it to new heights never before thought possible.  His achievement was all the more remarkable because he became totally deaf before the age of 40, and before he composed his greatest works.  A German like most great composers, Beethoven’s works capture an intensity and expressive emotion that surpassed even vocal music.  It was Beethoven’s great work that led an English critic to declare, “All arts aspire to the condition of music.”

In music, the greatest composer in the history of the world burst onto the scene in the early 1800s:  Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827).  He revolutionized instrumental music and took it to new heights never before thought possible.  His achievement was all the more remarkable because he became totally deaf before the age of 40, and before he composed his greatest works.  A German like many great composers, Beethoven’s works capture an intensity and expressive emotion that surpassed even vocal music.  It was Beethoven’s great work that led an English critic to declare, “All arts aspire to the condition of music.”

In the late 1800s, impressionism moved [[painting]] further away from its traditions.  It began in France and continued into the 1900s.  The chief feature of impressionism was to paint the transient effects of color and light, and attempt to capture a fleeting image or “impression”.  The feeling of an image was emphasized more than the detail (see right).  Major impressionistic painters included Edouard Manet, Claude Monet, Pierre Auguste Renoir and Paul Cezanne.  Manet, Monet, Renoir and others began emphasizing color and lighting as early as the late 1860s.  They often painted landscapes, and insisted on remaining outdoors until completion of the work, unlike predecessors who preferred to complete such work in the studio.  Renoir, for example, is known for brilliance of color, intimate charm in his subjects, and a harmony of his lines.   

In the late 1800s, impressionism moved [[painting]] further away from its traditions.  It began in France and continued into the 1900s.  The chief feature of impressionism was to paint the transient effects of color and light, and attempt to capture a fleeting image or “impression”.  The feeling of an image was emphasized more than the detail (see right).  Major impressionistic painters included Edouard Manet, Claude Monet, Pierre Auguste Renoir and Paul Cezanne.  Manet, Monet, Renoir and others began emphasizing color and lighting as early as the late 1860s.  They often painted landscapes, and insisted on remaining outdoors until completion of the work, unlike predecessors who preferred to complete such work in the studio.  Renoir, for example, is known for brilliance of color, intimate charm in his subjects (some of which are not family-friendly), and a harmony of his lines.   

Though the impressionistic movement in painting dissolved by the mid-1880s, it changed the path of art forever in its rejection of traditional Western approaches to subject matter.  The artist Vincent van Gogh, for example, was greatly influenced by the impressionists.  There was a musical impressionism also, which emphasized mood and understatement and reflected its composers’ view that pure sound (like color) is an end to itself.

Though the impressionist movement in painting dissolved by the mid-1880s, it changed the path of art forever in its rejection of traditional Western approaches to subject matter.  The artist Vincent van Gogh, for example, was greatly influenced by the impressionists.  There was a musical impressionism also, which emphasized mood and understatement and reflected its composers’ view that pure sound (like color) is an end to itself.

== References ==

== References ==