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The games are a source of international equality and sportsmanship, and also a very expensive proposition. It is typical for strong local opposition to try to block a city from hosting the games.
The games are a source of international equality and sportsmanship, and also a very expensive proposition. It is typical for strong local opposition to try to block a city from hosting the games.
==Origins==
==Origins==
In Greece itself a national program of Olympic Games, funded by Evangelos Zappas (1800-65), took place four times between 1859 and 1889, with limited success. The idea of a revival of the ancient games became popular in Europe thanks to Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), the father of the modern Olympic movement. In 1896 the first of the modern Olympic Games was staged in Athens. Although a passionate French patriot, Coubertin was also a sincere and committed internationalist who envisaged the advent of a new era of progress and universal harmony in an interdependent and even eventually unified world that would nevertheless preserve its cultural diversity and heritage. An admirer of the model of the Swiss Confederation, he was active in a variety of fields, promoting his ideas through the creation of networks. Growing nationalism in Europe and especially the outbreak of World War I highlighted the limits of his vision and placed him in a major dilemma, but he continued to prioritize the promotion of his Olympic ideal.
In Greece itself a national program of Olympic Games, funded by Evangelos Zappas (1800-65), took place four times between 1859 and 1889, with limited success. The idea of a revival of the ancient games became popular in Europe thanks to Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937), the father of the modern Olympic movement.
Two events in 1889 moved de Coubertin: the International Exposition in Paris and his visit to North America. The Exposition demonstrated the power of a truly international spectacle; the latter revealed the widespread growth of interest in a variety of sports, from rowing and yachting to football and track and field. In addition, recent archaeological discoveries by [[Heinrich Schliemann]] and others, and a growing fascination with Olympia and Greece in general, pushed his ambitious project forward. Coubertin used a copy of the founding compromise (1880) of the Amateur Athletic Association, the British sports governing body for track and field, to bring together a diversity of different interests in relation to the games.
In 1896 the first of the modern Olympic Games was staged in Athens. Although a passionate French patriot, Coubertin was also a sincere and committed internationalist who envisaged the advent of a new era of progress and universal harmony in an interdependent and even eventually unified world that would nevertheless preserve its cultural diversity and heritage. An admirer of the model of the Swiss Confederation, he was active in a variety of fields, promoting his ideas through the creation of networks. Growing nationalism in Europe and especially the outbreak of World War I highlighted the limits of his vision and placed him in a major dilemma, but he continued to prioritize the promotion of his Olympic ideal.
==Past games==
==Past games==
===1896 Athens===
With the Greek king presiding, the opening ceremonies attracted large crowds. American athletes dominated many of the track and field events, but the emotional climax of the games was the unexpected victory of Spiridon Loues, a Greek, in the marathon. He instantly became a national hero. Pierre de Coubertin (1863-1937) who created the Olympic Games, remained in the background but after the games he had to battle against Greek efforts to establish the Olympics permanently in Greece.
===1904 St. Louis===
* Matthews, George R. ''America's First Olympics: The St. Louis Games of 1904'' (2005) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst;jsessionid=J5hTmJ0y3KKrvyh1qLtX0zZQnrWlRxpyGD92nhgzJDTGpf3vKyJy!6927067?a=o&d=111476414 online edition]
===1924 Paris===
===1924 Paris===
Italian fencer Oreste Puliti (1891-1958) was at the center of controversy during the 1924 Paris Olympic Games. Disqualified by a Hungarian judge from the individual saber event, Puliti and the Italian team appealed to a 'jury d'honneur,' which upheld the judge's decision. The entire incident, including a later saber duel on the Hungarian border between Puliti and the judge, reflects issues of national pride, conflicts between European schools of fencing, and the difficulties the International Olympic Committee (IOC) had dealing with sport-based international federations.<ref>Thierry Terret, et al., "The Puliti Affair and the 1924 Paris Olympics: Geo-political Issues, National Pride and Fencing Traditions," ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 2007 24(10): 1281-1301 </ref>
Italian fencer Oreste Puliti (1891-1958) was at the center of controversy during the 1924 Paris Olympic Games. Disqualified by a Hungarian judge from the individual saber event, Puliti and the Italian team appealed to a 'jury d'honneur,' which upheld the judge's decision. The entire incident, including a later saber duel on the Hungarian border between Puliti and the judge, reflects issues of national pride, conflicts between European schools of fencing, and the difficulties the International Olympic Committee (IOC) had dealing with sport-based international federations.<ref>Thierry Terret, et al., "The Puliti Affair and the 1924 Paris Olympics: Geo-political Issues, National Pride and Fencing Traditions," ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 2007 24(10): 1281-1301 </ref>
===1932 Los Angeles===
===1932 Los Angeles===
===1936 Berlin===
===1936 Berlin===
The Berlin games were the most controversial (before 1980) because the IOC was determined to continue internationalism in the face of Germany mistreatment of Jews.
The Berlin games were the most controversial (before 1980) because the IOC was determined to continue internationalism in the face of Germany mistreatment of Jews. At another level there was tension between traditional Christian ideals and Nazi paganism. as the Orthodox Church of Greece criticized the Nazi staging of the Olympic flame ceremonies in 1936. Pagan aspects of the ceremony as well as the worship of the body were linked to contemporary political movements at odds with Christianity, notably Communism and Nazism.<ref> Christopher Hilton, ''Hitler's Olympics: The 1936 Berlin Olympic Games'' (2005) 244p. </ref>
===1940 Tokyo===
===1940 Tokyo===
The games were cancelled in 1938 when international tensions leading to [[World War II]] got out of hand. There never was a plan for a 1944 Olympics.
The games were cancelled in 1938 when international tensions leading to [[World War II]] got out of hand. There never was a plan for a 1944 Olympics.
See David Maraniss, ''Rome 1960: The Olympics That Changed the World'' (2007)
See David Maraniss, ''Rome 1960: The Olympics That Changed the World'' (2007)
===1964 Tokyo===
===1964 Tokyo===
The games demarcated the end of Japan's wounded psyche from World War II. Attendence by its former enemies meant that all was forgotten, if not forgiven.
===1968 Seoul===
The games heralded the emergence of a democratic system in South Korea, and the recognition of one of the first Third World countries to break into the top ranks of industrialized, modern nations.
===1980 Moscow===
The Olympic Games in Moscow in 1980 were one of the largest international events organized in a socialist country. The Soviets had high expectations of the games as a unique opportunity to present themselves to a worldwide audience. The effective staging of the Moscow Games was intended to demonstrate the power and strength of socialism not only within the Soviet Union but also to nonsocialist countries. To the stunned humiliation of the Soviets, the United States and its allies boycotted Moscow as punishment for the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan.
===1988 Seoul===
===1988 Seoul===
South Korean leaders hoped for both increased economic development and a heightened sense of national identity. Tangible economic results, including the growth of the telecommunications industry, seemed positive, as did the less concrete social, cultural, and political aspects of the games: democratic reforms in South Korea, better relations with Communist countries, and a boost in the nation's collective sense of self-confidence.<ref> Brian Bridges, "The Seoul Olympics: Economic Miracle Meets the World," ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 2008 25(14): 1939-1952</ref>
South Korean leaders hoped for both increased economic development and a heightened sense of national identity. Tangible economic results, including the growth of the telecommunications industry, seemed positive, as did the less concrete social, cultural, and political aspects of the games: democratic reforms in South Korea, better relations with Communist countries, and a boost in the nation's collective sense of self-confidence.<ref> Brian Bridges, "The Seoul Olympics: Economic Miracle Meets the World," ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 2008 25(14): 1939-1952</ref>
===India===
===India===
Organized men's field hockey began in India in the 1880's. Following World War I, the Indian national team rose to international prominence, winning the 1928 Olympic gold medal in Amsterdam without surrendering a single goal. The Indian squad won gold in every Olympics through 1956 and again in 1964. India dominated in other international tours as well. The ability to bring together players from various social classes and diverse ethnic groups proved to be a key element of their success.<ref> Boria Majumdar, "The Golden Years of Indian Hockey: 'We Climb the Victory Stand'", ''International Journal of the History of Sport,'' 2008 25(12): 1592-1611</ref>
Organized men's field hockey began in India in the 1880's. Following World War I, the Indian national team rose to international prominence, winning the 1928 Olympic gold medal in Amsterdam without surrendering a single goal. The Indian squad won gold in every Olympics through 1956 and again in 1964. India dominated in other international tours as well. The ability to bring together players from various social classes and diverse ethnic groups proved to be a key element of their success.<ref> Boria Majumdar, "The Golden Years of Indian Hockey: 'We Climb the Victory Stand'", ''International Journal of the History of Sport,'' 2008 25(12): 1592-1611</ref>
===Latin America===
The Young Men's Christian Association ([[YMCA]]), under the leadership of Elwood Brown, partnered with the International Olympic Committee (IOC) under Pierre de Coubertin to bring Olympic ideals and participation to Latin America. Following the 1922 Latin American Games in Rio de Janeiro, IOC member Henri de Baillet-Latour toured the region, helping countries establish national Olympic committees and prepare for future competition. In some countries, such as Brazil, sporting and political rivalries hindered progress as opposing factions battled for control of international sport. The 1924 Olympic Games in Paris and the 1928 games in Amsterdam saw greatly increased participation from Latin American athletes.<ref>Cesar R. Torres, "The Latin American 'Olympic Explosion' of the 1920s: Causes and Consequences," ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 2006 23(7): 1088-1111 </ref>
==Women==
After the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF) had repeatedly opposed including women's athletics in their official program in the early 1920's, the Fédération Sportive Féminine Internationale (FSFI) was founded in 1921. One year later it organized a Women's Olympiad in Paris with great success. As a result, the IOC accepted five women's athletic events in the program of the 1928 Olympic Games in Amsterdam. FSFI, under the leadership of Alice Milliat (1884-1957), sought to increase women's participation in sports, in particular the Olympic Games. The FSFI successfully sponsored the Women's Games in the years between the wars. However, the group faced considerable opposition from the aristocratic male leaders of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and from Siegfried Edström, president of the International Amateur Athletic Federation, who wanted to maintain male domination in sports. The FSFI collapsed in 1936, despite having created international momentum for female athletic competition, as richer, more powerful sports organizations refused to allow women to continue to participate in sporting events.<ref>Florence Carpentier, and Jean-Pierre Lefèvre, "The Modern Olympic Movement, Women's Sport and the Social Order During the Inter-war Period," ''International Journal of the History of Sport'' 2006 23(7): 1112-1127 </ref>
The fact that a few women collapsed on the grass after crossing the finishing line after the eight-hundred-meter race at the 1928 games, won by Germany's Lina Radke with a new world record, was used as an argument against women's athletics and women's sport in general. Officials, journalists, and doctors were not convinced of women's mental and physical ability to cope with the stresses of competitive sports. In a vote the IOC only just avoided abandoning women's athletics, but the eight-hundred-meter race was taken out of the program. Thirty years later the middle-distance race was restored to the Olympic program, again after intensive discussions.
== External links ==
== External links ==
*[http://en.beijing2008.cn/ The Beijing Organizing Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad]
*[http://en.beijing2008.cn/ The Beijing Organizing Committee for the Games of the XXIX Olympiad]
*[http://www.olympic.org/uk/index_uk.asp International Olympic Committee]
*[http://www.olympic.org/uk/index_uk.asp International Olympic Committee]
*[http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2008/08/04/sports/olympics/20080804_MEDALCOUNT_MAP.html Interactive Map of Olympic Medals], New York Times
*[http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2008/08/04/sports/olympics/20080804_MEDALCOUNT_MAP.html Interactive Map of Olympic Medals], New York Times
==Further reading==
* Gerlach, Larry, ed. ''The Winter Olympics: From Chamonix to Salt Lake City'' (2003) 330pp
* MacAloon, John J. ''This Great Symbol: Pierre de Coubertin and the Origins of the Modern Olympic Games'' (1981)
* Miller, David. ''Athens to Athens: The Official History of the Olympic Games and the IOC, 1894-2004'' (2004) 528p.
* Pelle, Kimberly D. ''Encyclopedia of the Modern Olympic Movement'' (2004) 602pp.
* Preuss, Holger. ''The Economics of Staging the Olympics: A Comparison of the Games, 1972-2008'' (2003)
* [http://www.questia.com/library/sociology-and-anthropology/leisure-and-recreation/olympics.jsp online books and articles from [[Questia]]]
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[[Category:Olympics]]
[[Category:Olympics]]
[[Category:Sports]]
[[Category:Sports]]