Changes

Does history repeat itself in cycles? Are there long-term patterns?  Are there patterns that cover the rise and fall of entire civilizations? Are there lessons to be learned.  Historians often claim that the study of political, military and business history teaches valuable lessons with regard to past successes and failures of leaders, military strategy and tactics, and business success and failure.  

Does history repeat itself in cycles? Are there long-term patterns?  Are there patterns that cover the rise and fall of entire civilizations? Are there lessons to be learned.  Historians often claim that the study of political, military and business history teaches valuable lessons with regard to past successes and failures of leaders, military strategy and tactics, and business success and failure.  

The use of history to study the rise and fall of nation-states or civilizations, in the style of [[Edward Gibbon]] (1737-1794), Oswald Spengler (1880-1936), Pitirim Sorokin (1889-1968), or [[Arnold J. Toynbee]] (1889-1975), has fallen out of fashion, as most no longer have faith that such a project is possible.  However William H. McNeill (1917- ), a Toynbee student, has tried his hand at it, and [[World History]] is in fashion.

The use of history to study the rise and fall of nation-states or civilizations, in the style of [[Edward Gibbon]] (1737-1794), [[Oswald Spengler]] (1880-1936), Pitirim Sorokin (1889-1968), or [[Arnold J. Toynbee]] (1889-1975), has fallen out of fashion, as most no longer have faith that such a project is possible.  However William H. McNeill (1917- ), a Toynbee student, has tried his hand at it, and [[World history]] is in fashion.

 

Since the 1970s the [[postmodern]] sensibility has prevailed in historiography, forcing most (but not all) historians away from "big" questions and grand themes, and focusing them on small topics that are approached from many directions, often with ambiguous results.

Since the 1970s the [[postmodern]] sensibility has appeared in historiography, especially in pulling most (but not all) historians away from "big" questions and grand themes, and focusing them on small topics that are approached from many directions, often with ambiguous results.

===Popular aphorisms===

===Popular aphorisms===

Spanish philosopher [[George Santayana]] commented, "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it."  Many historians have echoed the line. The German philosopher of history [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] remarked that "What history and experience teach us is this: that people and government never have learned anything from history or acted on principles deduced from it."  Hegel was paraphrased by [[Winston Churchill]], who said "The one thing we have learned from history is that we don't learn from history." Ortega Y Gasset (1883-1955), Spanish philosopher said, "We have need of history in its entirety, not to fall back into it, but to escape from it." The aphorisms are entertaining and are often given out to popular audiences, but scholars pay no attention to them.

Spanish philosopher [[George Santayana]] commented, "Those who cannot remember the past are condemned to repeat it."  Many historians have echoed the line. The German philosopher of history [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel]] remarked that "What history and experience teach us is this: that people and government never have learned anything from history or acted on principles deduced from it."  Hegel was paraphrased by [[Winston Churchill]], who said "The one thing we have learned from history is that we don't learn from history." Ortega Y Gasset (1883-1955), Spanish philosopher said, "We have need of history in its entirety, not to fall back into it, but to escape from it." The aphorisms are entertaining and are often given out to popular audiences, but scholars pay no attention to them.

==Further reading==

==Further reading==

For a detailed guide see [[History/Bibliography]]

For a detailed guide see [[History/Bibliography]]