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==The Industrial Revolution==

==The Industrial Revolution==

In the 1700s England and France were already nations.  In England, in particular, there was a powerful “industrial revolution” that transformed its society from an agrarian economy (based mostly on farming) into an economy powered by manufacturing and industry.  England, which had the strongest economy in the world, was the first to undergo the industrial revolution, although some historians cite the iron industry in China under the Song dynasty and the textile industry in India as forerunners to the English Industrial Revolution.

In the 1700s England and France were already nations.  In England there began a powerful “industrial revolution” that transformed its society from an agrarian economy (based mostly on farming) into an economy powered by manufacturing and industry.  England, which had the strongest economy in the world, was the first to undergo an industrial revolution, although some historians cite the iron industry in China under the Song dynasty and the textile industry in India as forerunners to the English Industrial Revolution.

The big Industrial Revolution began fully in 1760 in England.  Then, aided by the economic insights of Adam Smith, England’s economy continued to transform, grow and expand until 1840.

The Industrial Revolution started in about 1760 in England.  Then, aided by the economic insights of Adam Smith, England’s economy continued to transform, grow and expand until 1840.

A new form of literature also rose during this time, called Realism.  These stories told the dark side of the Industrial Revolution: the overcrowded, filthy conditions in which many workers struggled.  Many of Charles Dickens' classics, such as ''David Copperfield'', belong to this genre of literature, portraying the plight of the poor in 19th century England.

A new form of literature also rose during this time, called "Realism".  These stories told the dark side of the Industrial Revolution: the overcrowded, filthy conditions in which many workers struggled.  Many of Charles Dickens' classics, such as ''David Copperfield'', belong to this genre of literature, portraying the plight of the poor in 19th century England.

===Where, When and Why===

===Where, When and Why===

The Industrial Revolution began in England in the cotton textile industry, with new machines for spinning and weaving fabrics.  England obtained much cotton from the South in the United States, where it was picked and separated into fibers by slaves on plantations.  The process of separating the good cotton from sticky seeds was difficult and time consuming when done my hand.  When Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in America, production of cotton soared and England’s factories bought up as much as the South could produce.  England also imported cotton from Egypt and India; India is famous for its brightly colored fabrics and it exported colored cotton known as calico.  (The South overestimated England’s reliance on the South’s cotton when it made the decision to secede from the North in the Civil War; the South mistakenly thought that England would be economically forced to help the South, when actually England had other good sources of cotton.)

The Industrial Revolution began in England in the cotton textile industry, with new machines for spinning and weaving fabrics.  England obtained much cotton from the South in the United States, where it was picked and separated into fibers by slaves on plantations.  The process of separating the good cotton from sticky seeds was difficult and time consuming when done my hand.  When Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin in America, production of cotton soared and England’s factories bought up as much as the South could produce.  England also imported cotton from Egypt and India; India is famous for its brightly colored fabrics, and it exported colored cotton known as calico.  (The South overestimated England’s reliance on the South’s cotton when it made the decision to secede from the North during the Civil War; the South mistakenly thought that England would be economically forced to help the South, when actually England had other good sources of cotton, such as India.)

England and the United States built canals to connect waterways and transport goods, and in 1807 American Robert Fulton started the first commercial steamboat service.  Macadam (smoothly paved) roads and turnpikes helped distribute newly manufactured goods.  In the early 1800s, the railroad also emerged as a powerful form of transportation.

England and the United States built canals to connect waterways and transport goods, and in 1807 American Robert Fulton started the first commercial steamboat service.  Macadam (smoothly paved) roads and turnpikes helped distribute newly manufactured goods.  In the early 1800s, the railroad also emerged as a powerful form of transportation.

The industrial revolution spread from England to continental Europe, beginning with Belgium in the early 1800s and then France and Germany.  The industrial revolution did not reach eastern Europe until the early 1900s, and China and India did not undergo the conversion until the mid-1900s.

The industrial revolution spread from England to continental Europe, beginning with Belgium in the early 1800s and then France and Germany.  The industrial revolution did not reach eastern Europe until the early 1900s, and China and India did not undergo the conversion until the mid-1900s.

In Islamic Egypt, modernization was attempted by the Ottoman ruler Muhammad Ali Pasha (1769-1849) and his grandson Ismail.  Muhammad Ali Pasha forced farmers to leave their farms and work on commercial plantations he established to export cotton and other crops to Europe.  But in the end, his government-planned industrialization resulted in a large debt to Western European countries, especially England.  In Russia, industrialization was encouraged by the completion of the trans-Siberian railroad in 1904, connecting Russian to China and Japan.  Japan was the only Asian country to successfully industrialize.  Under Meiji rule, the government invited foreigners to teach industrialization principles.  Businesses were sponsored and controlled by the government, and, when established, were then sold to private individuals.

In Islamic Egypt, modernization was attempted by the Ottoman ruler Muhammad Ali Pasha (1769-1849) and his grandson Ismail.  Muhammad Ali Pasha forced farmers to leave their farms and work on commercial plantations he established to export cotton and other crops to Europe.  But in the end, his government-planned industrialization resulted in a large debt to Western European countries, especially England.  In Russia, industrialization was encouraged by the completion of the trans-Siberian railroad in 1904, connecting Russian to China and Japan.  Japan was the only Asian country to successfully industrialize.  Under Meiji rule, the government invited foreigners to teach industrialization principles.  Businesses were sponsored and controlled by the government and, when established, were then sold to private individuals.

There were two key aspects to the Industrial Revolution: technology and culture.  In technology, the Industrial Revolution began using iron and steel as basic resources, and developed energy sources such as electricity, oil and the steam engine.  Transportation benefited from the steam engine (invented by James Watt in the 1770s) and later the car and airplane (invented by the Wright Brothers in 1903), while communication benefited from the telegraph (invented by Samuel Morse in 1837) and (later) the telephone (invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876) and the radio (invented in 1895).  New machines such as the power loom and spinning jenny enabled mass production, and factories arose to divide labor and permit specialization.  Increased application of science to industry helped enormously.

There were two key aspects to the Industrial Revolution: technology and culture.  In technology, the Industrial Revolution began using iron and steel as basic resources, and developed energy sources such as electricity, oil and the steam engine.  Transportation benefited from the steam engine (invented by James Watt in the 1770s) and later the car and airplane (invented by the Wright Brothers in 1903), while communication benefited from the telegraph (invented by Samuel Morse in 1837) and (later) the telephone (invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876) and the radio (invented in 1895).  New machines such as the power loom and spinning jenny enabled mass production, and factories arose to divide labor and permit specialization.  Increased application of science to industry helped enormously.