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<br>Instructor, Andy Schlafly

<br>Instructor, Andy Schlafly

== Introduction ==

 

<br>I. Introduction

After the industrial revolution, many European nations extended their power through “imperialism”, which means one nation trying to control other people.  Imperialism makes the bigger nation feel more powerful and more influential.  It can also be very profitable for the imperialistic nation as it exploits the natural resources and labor of the other people.  But subjugated people began to resent rule by another nation, and imperialism became a huge problem worldwide.

After the industrial revolution, many European nations extended their power through “imperialism”, which means one nation trying to control other people.  Imperialism makes the bigger nation feel more powerful and more influential.  It can also be very profitable for the imperialistic nation as it exploits the natural resources and labor of the other people.  But subjugated people began to resent rule by another nation, and imperialism became a huge problem worldwide.

The European nations grew bigger and stronger in the 1800s and early 1900s.  These industrialized nations (Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and also the United States and Japan) sought natural resources and raw materials for their factories and new markets to sell their finished goods.  In England and Germany, people who believed in Darwin’s theory of evolution felt a racial superiority and sought conquest (survival-of-the-fittest) to force other races into submission.

The European nations grew bigger and stronger in the 1800s and early 1900s.  These industrialized nations (Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and also the United States and Japan) sought natural resources and raw materials for their factories and new markets to sell their finished goods.  In England and Germany, people who believed in Darwin’s theory of evolution felt a racial superiority and sought conquest (survival-of-the-fittest) to force other races into submission.

'''II. Post-Industrial Revolution'''

== Post-Industrial Revolution ==

Much changed due to the industrial revolution, and not all of the change was good.  A debate arose over whether the government should regulate businesses that ran factories.  Most of the economic thinkers in the 1800s were in England, where the industrial revolution initially occurred.

Much changed due to the industrial revolution, and not all of the change was good.  A debate arose over whether the government should regulate businesses that ran factories.  Most of the economic thinkers in the 1800s were in England, where the industrial revolution initially occurred.

'''A. The British Thinkers.'''

=== The British Thinkers ===

On one side of the debate were the “laissez-faire” economists who, like Adam Smith, wanted the government to stay out of business.  They felt that the “invisible hand” would produce the best outcome, and that supply and demand would be far better at allocating resources to their best use than government regulation could.     

On one side of the debate were the “laissez-faire” economists who, like Adam Smith, wanted the government to stay out of business.  They felt that the “invisible hand” would produce the best outcome, and that supply and demand would be far better at allocating resources to their best use than government regulation could.     

Today, there is a strong correlation between belief in evolution and belief in a controlling government.  England was the strongest nation in the world at the time of Darwin, but its embrace of forms of socialism weakened it dramatically.  The United States, where the vast majority has always rejected Darwinism, rose from being a relatively weak country at the time of Darwin to becoming by far the strongest nation today.

Today, there is a strong correlation between belief in evolution and belief in a controlling government.  England was the strongest nation in the world at the time of Darwin, but its embrace of forms of socialism weakened it dramatically.  The United States, where the vast majority has always rejected Darwinism, rose from being a relatively weak country at the time of Darwin to becoming by far the strongest nation today.

'''B. Social Reform'''

=== Social Reform===

Labor unions arose in the late 1800s, as John Stuart Mill suggested, in order to combat a perceived exploitation of workers.  “Collective bargaining” between workers (the “collective” side) and their opponents, the owners, became popular and continues to exist today.  It was the method of collective bargaining in the late 1900s that helped enable American baseball players to increase their salaries to astronomical levels.  Collective bargaining usually works like this:  raise our salaries or the workers will go on strike.  Several times baseball players made good on their threat, and went out on strike.  Brutal strikes by auto workers in Detroit in the 1970s for higher wages had a huge effect on the competitiveness of the auto industry there.

Labor unions arose in the late 1800s, as John Stuart Mill suggested, in order to combat a perceived exploitation of workers.  “Collective bargaining” between workers (the “collective” side) and their opponents, the owners, became popular and continues to exist today.  It was the method of collective bargaining in the late 1900s that helped enable American baseball players to increase their salaries to astronomical levels.  Collective bargaining usually works like this:  raise our salaries or the workers will go on strike.  Several times baseball players made good on their threat, and went out on strike.  Brutal strikes by auto workers in Detroit in the 1970s for higher wages had a huge effect on the competitiveness of the auto industry there.

In 1848, women suffragettes (supporters of the right to vote for women) met in Seneca Falls, New York, where they issued their own version of the Declaration of Independence called the “Declaration of Sentiments.”  Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott of the United States and the British Emmeline Pankhurst protested for suffrage.  Britain and the United States gave the right to vote to all women shortly after World War I.

In 1848, women suffragettes (supporters of the right to vote for women) met in Seneca Falls, New York, where they issued their own version of the Declaration of Independence called the “Declaration of Sentiments.”  Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott of the United States and the British Emmeline Pankhurst protested for suffrage.  Britain and the United States gave the right to vote to all women shortly after World War I.

'''C. Growth in Democracy'''

=== Growth in Democracy===

The industrial revolution led to the growth of cities, which in turn led to demands for greater amounts of democracy or “suffrage” (rights to vote).  In England the right to vote was limited to those who owned property until Parliament reduced these restrictions with the Reform Bill of 1832.  That reform also eliminated “rotten boroughs,” in which relatively few residents had the power to elect a representative with the same vote as much bigger districts.  Parliament then redistricted the cities to reflect their growing populations.

The industrial revolution led to the growth of cities, which in turn led to demands for greater amounts of democracy or “suffrage” (rights to vote).  In England the right to vote was limited to those who owned property until Parliament reduced these restrictions with the Reform Bill of 1832.  That reform also eliminated “rotten boroughs,” in which relatively few residents had the power to elect a representative with the same vote as much bigger districts.  Parliament then redistricted the cities to reflect their growing populations.

Self-rule did not come to the Dominion of Canada until 1867, and even then it remained within the British empire.  Australia, which was settled by prisoners from England, did not obtain self-rule until the 1850s and it remained within the British legal system until the late 20th century.  New Zealand also won self-rule in the 1850s.  In France its Third Republic ruled from 1875 until the 1930s.

Self-rule did not come to the Dominion of Canada until 1867, and even then it remained within the British empire.  Australia, which was settled by prisoners from England, did not obtain self-rule until the 1850s and it remained within the British legal system until the late 20th century.  New Zealand also won self-rule in the 1850s.  In France its Third Republic ruled from 1875 until the 1930s.

'''D. Technology and Science'''

=== Technology and Science ===

Capitalism unleashed a burst of creative activity in science and technology.  Beginning in the 1870s, Thomas Edison invented the light bulb, motion pictures and, even though he was mostly deaf, the phonograph.  In 1895 Guglielmo Marconi invented the radio.  Henry Ford perfected the assembly line and manufactured the first automobiles in the early 1900s.  Wilbur and Orville Wright flew the first gasoline-powered airplane in 1903.

Capitalism unleashed a burst of creative activity in science and technology.  Beginning in the 1870s, Thomas Edison invented the light bulb, motion pictures and, even though he was mostly deaf, the phonograph.  In 1895 Guglielmo Marconi invented the radio.  Henry Ford perfected the assembly line and manufactured the first automobiles in the early 1900s.  Wilbur and Orville Wright flew the first gasoline-powered airplane in 1903.

Marie Curie, a brilliant female Polish scientist who moved to Paris, discovered radioactivity along with her less talented husband Pierre.  Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, put together the periodic table of elements that is still taught today.  British physician Joseph Lister applied Pasteur’s germ theory of disease and implemented an antibacterial cleaning technique for hospital tools and facilities, greatly reducing the number of infections.

Marie Curie, a brilliant female Polish scientist who moved to Paris, discovered radioactivity along with her less talented husband Pierre.  Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, put together the periodic table of elements that is still taught today.  British physician Joseph Lister applied Pasteur’s germ theory of disease and implemented an antibacterial cleaning technique for hospital tools and facilities, greatly reducing the number of infections.

'''III. Imperialism'''

== Imperialism ==

The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines “imperialism” as “the policy, practice, or advocacy of extending the power and dominion of a nation especially by direct territorial acquisitions or by gaining indirect control over the political or economic life of other areas.”  www.m-w.com .  More simply, imperialism is one nation trying to control another nation or people.  Examples include Spanish imperialism towards Mexico and perhaps American imperialism towards the Philippines.

The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines “imperialism” as “the policy, practice, or advocacy of extending the power and dominion of a nation especially by direct territorial acquisitions or by gaining indirect control over the political or economic life of other areas.”  www.m-w.com .  More simply, imperialism is one nation trying to control another nation or people.  Examples include Spanish imperialism towards Mexico and perhaps American imperialism towards the Philippines.

4.  Finally, there was “economic imperialism,” whereby the outside influence was exerted not by a country but by a private business over a region.

4.  Finally, there was “economic imperialism,” whereby the outside influence was exerted not by a country but by a private business over a region.

'''A. Africa'''

=== Africa ===

Perhaps the roots of European imperialism date back as early as 1492, when Columbus discovered the New World and Spain soon sent conquistadors.  But in the 1800s European imperialism began to focus in particular on Africa, for the following reasons.

Perhaps the roots of European imperialism date back as early as 1492, when Columbus discovered the New World and Spain soon sent conquistadors.  But in the 1800s European imperialism began to focus in particular on Africa, for the following reasons.

European imperialism on the African continent had both good and bad effects.  On the good side, the Europeans brought advances in technology, built hospitals, and improved the infrastructure, such as railroads, telephones, telegraphs, sanitation and other public works.  This improved trade and communications, and reduced disease.  Europeans also built schools, but used them to teach European language and culture rather than respecting local traditions.  Literacy did improve as a result, however.  On the bad side, the Europeans displaced Africans from their individual farms and shifted them into working for European businesses.  Africans lost control of their land and saw a reduction in their own food crops.  Europeans also completely disrupted African cultural groups and village life, resulting in arbitrary geographical boundaries that continue to cause war and strife to this day.

European imperialism on the African continent had both good and bad effects.  On the good side, the Europeans brought advances in technology, built hospitals, and improved the infrastructure, such as railroads, telephones, telegraphs, sanitation and other public works.  This improved trade and communications, and reduced disease.  Europeans also built schools, but used them to teach European language and culture rather than respecting local traditions.  Literacy did improve as a result, however.  On the bad side, the Europeans displaced Africans from their individual farms and shifted them into working for European businesses.  Africans lost control of their land and saw a reduction in their own food crops.  Europeans also completely disrupted African cultural groups and village life, resulting in arbitrary geographical boundaries that continue to cause war and strife to this day.

'''B. Ottoman Empire'''

=== Ottoman Empire ===

In the 1800s, the powerful Europeans and even the Russians took on the Islamic powers, most notably the Ottoman empire.

In the 1800s, the powerful Europeans and even the Russians took on the Islamic powers, most notably the Ottoman empire.

Britain argued with Russia over dominance in Persia (now Iran).  In 1907 they divided that region after there were riots protesting the exporting of tobacco to Britain.  When some gold was discovered in Persia in 1908, British influence increased.

Britain argued with Russia over dominance in Persia (now Iran).  In 1907 they divided that region after there were riots protesting the exporting of tobacco to Britain.  When some gold was discovered in Persia in 1908, British influence increased.

'''C. China and Japan'''

=== China and Japan ===

China and Japan have always been very different from each other, and are longtime enemies.  China has historically been a more philosophical and peaceful country, while Japan has traditionally been nationalistic and militaristic.

China and Japan have always been very different from each other, and are longtime enemies.  China has historically been a more philosophical and peaceful country, while Japan has traditionally been nationalistic and militaristic.

'''China'''

==== China ====

China deliberately isolated itself from the West, allowing only one port in southern China to conduct trade with Europe:  Guangzhou.  But the British learned that the Chinese people (like many people worldwide) became easily addicted to opium, a terrible drug that is illegal today.  In the late 1700s the British took advantage of this addiction and began sending massive amounts of opium to China.  At one point a Chinese government official wrote a letter to Queen Victoria begging her to stop this.  In 1839 the Opium War broke out over this issue, but the British defeated the Chinese and the Treaty of Nanjing gave the British the key port of Hong Kong, which it held until just a few years ago.  Another treaty in 1844 gave other western powers, including France, Germany, Russia and even the United States, extraterritorial or foreign rights to four additional ports, along with special exemptions from Chinese law.

China deliberately isolated itself from the West, allowing only one port in southern China to conduct trade with Europe:  Guangzhou.  But the British learned that the Chinese people (like many people worldwide) became easily addicted to opium, a terrible drug that is illegal today.  In the late 1700s the British took advantage of this addiction and began sending massive amounts of opium to China.  At one point a Chinese government official wrote a letter to Queen Victoria begging her to stop this.  In 1839 the Opium War broke out over this issue, but the British defeated the Chinese and the Treaty of Nanjing gave the British the key port of Hong Kong, which it held until just a few years ago.  Another treaty in 1844 gave other western powers, including France, Germany, Russia and even the United States, extraterritorial or foreign rights to four additional ports, along with special exemptions from Chinese law.

In 1899 the United States, fearing further foreign influence in China, announced the Open Door Policy demanding that China’s ports be open to all foreign traders.  European powers agreed and foreign contact increased further in China.  A secret Chinese society known as the Boxers rebelled against Beijing, China’s main city, in 1900.  The foreign powers joined forces to quash (put down) this Boxer Rebellion.

In 1899 the United States, fearing further foreign influence in China, announced the Open Door Policy demanding that China’s ports be open to all foreign traders.  European powers agreed and foreign contact increased further in China.  A secret Chinese society known as the Boxers rebelled against Beijing, China’s main city, in 1900.  The foreign powers joined forces to quash (put down) this Boxer Rebellion.

'''Japan'''

==== Japan ====

Japan was one of the imperialistic powers that eventually threatened China.  Even though much smaller than China, Japan has a military culture that seemed invincible until the United States dropped two atom bombs on it in August 1945.

Japan was one of the imperialistic powers that eventually threatened China.  Even though much smaller than China, Japan has a military culture that seemed invincible until the United States dropped two atom bombs on it in August 1945.

The story of Japan can be summed up in one sentence: Japan started out as a target of imperialism and ended up as one of the most imperialistic nations of all.

The story of Japan can be summed up in one sentence: Japan started out as a target of imperialism and ended up as one of the most imperialistic nations of all.

'''D. Latin America'''

=== Latin America ===

“Latin America” includes all of the Americas south of the United States.  Put another way, Latin America consists of the Spanish-speaking countries plus Brazil, which speaks Portuguese.

“Latin America” includes all of the Americas south of the United States.  Put another way, Latin America consists of the Spanish-speaking countries plus Brazil, which speaks Portuguese.

The Monroe Doctrine has an important corollary today, known as the Roosevelt Corollary, announced by the aggressive President Teddy Roosevelt in 1904.  Under the Roosevelt Corollary the United States may intervene in and occupy any country in Latin America to protect interests of the United States.  Communism remains a threat to the United States in the Latin American countries of Cuba and Venezuela, and very recently the president of Venezuela (Hugo Chavez) called President Bush the “devil” in a speech given before the United Nations.  In December 2006, Chavez then won reelection in Venezuela by a 61-38% margin (based on early election returns), and promised more socialism for that country and perhaps others in the region.

The Monroe Doctrine has an important corollary today, known as the Roosevelt Corollary, announced by the aggressive President Teddy Roosevelt in 1904.  Under the Roosevelt Corollary the United States may intervene in and occupy any country in Latin America to protect interests of the United States.  Communism remains a threat to the United States in the Latin American countries of Cuba and Venezuela, and very recently the president of Venezuela (Hugo Chavez) called President Bush the “devil” in a speech given before the United Nations.  In December 2006, Chavez then won reelection in Venezuela by a 61-38% margin (based on early election returns), and promised more socialism for that country and perhaps others in the region.

'''E. India'''

=== India ===

In India, the story is of British imperialism followed by Indian nationalism and independence.  Beginning as early as the 1600s, the British established trading posts in India.  When the Mughal empire weakened in the 1700s, British influence (especially the East India Company) became more influential.  By the early 1800s British dominance over the subcontinent was immense.  The British imposed rules that limited the internal operations of the Indian economy, and the British decimated the local Indian industry in handmade textiles by flooding the market with cheap manufactured clothing from Britain.  A famine resulted when the British displaced many farmers in India through economic changes similar to what happened in Africa, with cash-crop and big business plantation techniques destroying small farms.

In India, the story is of British imperialism followed by Indian nationalism and independence.  Beginning as early as the 1600s, the British established trading posts in India.  When the Mughal empire weakened in the 1700s, British influence (especially the East India Company) became more influential.  By the early 1800s British dominance over the subcontinent was immense.  The British imposed rules that limited the internal operations of the Indian economy, and the British decimated the local Indian industry in handmade textiles by flooding the market with cheap manufactured clothing from Britain.  A famine resulted when the British displaced many farmers in India through economic changes similar to what happened in Africa, with cash-crop and big business plantation techniques destroying small farms.

But all attempts at independence for India failed throughout the 1800s because of religious divisions.  The Hindus and Muslims could never agree, and the Sikhs, a military offshoot of the Hindus that resisted Islam, remained loyal to the British.   

But all attempts at independence for India failed throughout the 1800s because of religious divisions.  The Hindus and Muslims could never agree, and the Sikhs, a military offshoot of the Hindus that resisted Islam, remained loyal to the British.   

'''F. Southeast Asia'''

=== Southeast Asia ===

As trade expanded beyond Africa and India to Southeast Asia, so did imperialism.  Britain established a trading post and supply station at Singapore, the French acquired influence over Indochina, the Dutch grabbed Indonesia, and the Germans dominated New Guinea, the Marshalls, and the Solomons.  The United States even got into this game, as it acquired the Philippines and Hawaiian Islands.  The only country that successfully resisted western imperialism was Siam, which is now Thailand.  It was respected as a buffer zone between the British colony of Burma and the French colony of Indochina.  In a sense that gave Siam the best of both worlds:  it enjoyed western advances in technology (hospitals, railroads, communications, etc.) while retaining its own culture.

As trade expanded beyond Africa and India to Southeast Asia, so did imperialism.  Britain established a trading post and supply station at Singapore, the French acquired influence over Indochina, the Dutch grabbed Indonesia, and the Germans dominated New Guinea, the Marshalls, and the Solomons.  The United States even got into this game, as it acquired the Philippines and Hawaiian Islands.  The only country that successfully resisted western imperialism was Siam, which is now Thailand.  It was respected as a buffer zone between the British colony of Burma and the French colony of Indochina.  In a sense that gave Siam the best of both worlds:  it enjoyed western advances in technology (hospitals, railroads, communications, etc.) while retaining its own culture.

American businesses also set up sugar plantations in Hawaii.  They demanded that Hawaii be annexed to the United States so that the businesses could avoid paying high tariffs on sugar imports.  In 1893 Queen Liliuokalani, a native Hawaiian, attempted to increase the political power of herself and the natives at the expense of the Americans on the island, but the American businesses overthrew her and in 1898 Hawaii was annexed to the United States as a territory.  It became our 50th state in 1959.  An interesting bit of trivia is that one spot in Hawaii has the most rainfall in the entire United States (460 inches of rain per year, or an average of more than one inch of rain per day).

American businesses also set up sugar plantations in Hawaii.  They demanded that Hawaii be annexed to the United States so that the businesses could avoid paying high tariffs on sugar imports.  In 1893 Queen Liliuokalani, a native Hawaiian, attempted to increase the political power of herself and the natives at the expense of the Americans on the island, but the American businesses overthrew her and in 1898 Hawaii was annexed to the United States as a territory.  It became our 50th state in 1959.  An interesting bit of trivia is that one spot in Hawaii has the most rainfall in the entire United States (460 inches of rain per year, or an average of more than one inch of rain per day).

'''IV. Early Modern Period'''

== Early Modern Period ==

We now enter the Modern era in world history: from 1900 to today.  In this lecture we will cover from 1900 to World War I.

We now enter the Modern era in world history: from 1900 to today.  In this lecture we will cover from 1900 to World War I.

'''A. Rivalries in Europe'''

=== Rivalries in Europe ===

The relationship among European nations was strained and tense at the turn of the 20th century (1900).  They had much to disagree about.  The imperialism cause conflicts to arise.  Economic competition intensified, and the quest for raw materials like gold, oil and agriculture heightened the tension.

The relationship among European nations was strained and tense at the turn of the 20th century (1900).  They had much to disagree about.  The imperialism cause conflicts to arise.  Economic competition intensified, and the quest for raw materials like gold, oil and agriculture heightened the tension.

In sum, there were three causes of increased rivalries among European nations:  nationalism, militarism and imperialism.  Remember those three causes of problems.

In sum, there were three causes of increased rivalries among European nations:  nationalism, militarism and imperialism.  Remember those three causes of problems.

'''B. The Problem with Alliances'''

=== The Problem with Alliances ===

You may recall that European nations entered into many alliances beginning as early as the fall of Napoleon (the “Concert of Europe” established at the Congress of Vienna).

You may recall that European nations entered into many alliances beginning as early as the fall of Napoleon (the “Concert of Europe” established at the Congress of Vienna).

Therefore one powerful group of three nations (Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary), known as the Triple Alliance, stood against another powerful group of three nations (Britain, France and Russia), known as the Triple Entente.  It was like one football team standing on a field opposite another football team, with both teams fully suited up.  It doesn’t take much for someone to shout, “let’s play,” and the battle will begin.

Therefore one powerful group of three nations (Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary), known as the Triple Alliance, stood against another powerful group of three nations (Britain, France and Russia), known as the Triple Entente.  It was like one football team standing on a field opposite another football team, with both teams fully suited up.  It doesn’t take much for someone to shout, “let’s play,” and the battle will begin.

'''V. World War I Begins'''

== World War I Begins ==

Within ten years of the formation of those alliances, something did ignite a war.  And what a devastating war it was.  Never before in the history of the world was a war fought in such a deadly manner.  With Christians on both sides, one might wonder how this could have happened.  But this was long past the feudal times when fighting stopped on every Christian holiday.  By 1914, leaders in both Germany on one side and Britain on the other had embraced concepts of survival-of-the-fittest, and many educated people felt that war was an essential part of the improvement of the human race.  Let the stronger race win, according to this theory.

Within ten years of the formation of those alliances, something did ignite a war.  And what a devastating war it was.  Never before in the history of the world was a war fought in such a deadly manner.  With Christians on both sides, one might wonder how this could have happened.  But this was long past the feudal times when fighting stopped on every Christian holiday.  By 1914, leaders in both Germany on one side and Britain on the other had embraced concepts of survival-of-the-fittest, and many educated people felt that war was an essential part of the improvement of the human race.  Let the stronger race win, according to this theory.

'''A. What Ignited the War'''

=== What Ignited the War ===

The Balkans in Eastern Europe was where the war began.  The Ottoman empire had declined, leaving a power vacuum that European nations tried to fill.  The Slavs in Serbia, with Russian support, wanted to unite all the Slavs in the Balkans.  Austria-Hungary, which has a very small Slavic population, opposed this.  Instead, Austria-Hungary wanted to control the Balkans rather than Russia.

The Balkans in Eastern Europe was where the war began.  The Ottoman empire had declined, leaving a power vacuum that European nations tried to fill.  The Slavs in Serbia, with Russian support, wanted to unite all the Slavs in the Balkans.  Austria-Hungary, which has a very small Slavic population, opposed this.  Instead, Austria-Hungary wanted to control the Balkans rather than Russia.

In a mere week a small dispute between Austria and Serbia over an assassination escalated into a world war between Britain, France and Russia (Allied Powers) and Germany and Austria-Hungary (Central Powers).  Italy left the German side when it invaded the neutral Belgium, and Italy eventually joined the Allied Powers along with Japan.  The Ottoman empire and Bulgaria eventually joined the Central Powers.

In a mere week a small dispute between Austria and Serbia over an assassination escalated into a world war between Britain, France and Russia (Allied Powers) and Germany and Austria-Hungary (Central Powers).  Italy left the German side when it invaded the neutral Belgium, and Italy eventually joined the Allied Powers along with Japan.  The Ottoman empire and Bulgaria eventually joined the Central Powers.

'''B. Initial Stages of the War'''

=== Initial Stages of the War ===

The fighting in the “Great War,” as it was called then (it is now called World War I), was savage and brutal.  Army casualties totaled more than 37 million people, and there were another 10 million in civilian deaths.  For weeks armies would be in trenches opposite each other, spending day after day trying to kill their opponents in the opposite trench.  This was known as trench warfare.  Movement of ten or twenty feet in advance of a trench was a big success.  Barbed wire marked off an area known as “no man’s land” between the two trenches, where any visitor would be shot on sight.  Also, a deadly flu virus spread among the soldiers and infected the world, killing a huge number.

The fighting in the “Great War,” as it was called then (it is now called World War I), was savage and brutal.  Army casualties totaled more than 37 million people, and there were another 10 million in civilian deaths.  For weeks armies would be in trenches opposite each other, spending day after day trying to kill their opponents in the opposite trench.  This was known as trench warfare.  Movement of ten or twenty feet in advance of a trench was a big success.  Barbed wire marked off an area known as “no man’s land” between the two trenches, where any visitor would be shot on sight.  Also, a deadly flu virus spread among the soldiers and infected the world, killing a huge number.

In detail, the first year of the war finished with terrible casualties but no knock-out punches.  France won a key initial Battle of the Marne, and that forced Germany to fight on two fronts after all.  But while the Allied Powers were holding their own on the Western Front, Russia was losing on the Eastern Front.  Russia was not as industrialized as the West and its military was inferior, but Russians were tenacious in battle.

In detail, the first year of the war finished with terrible casualties but no knock-out punches.  France won a key initial Battle of the Marne, and that forced Germany to fight on two fronts after all.  But while the Allied Powers were holding their own on the Western Front, Russia was losing on the Eastern Front.  Russia was not as industrialized as the West and its military was inferior, but Russians were tenacious in battle.

'''C. The Colonies'''

=== The Colonies ===

Britain drew upon its colonies of Canada, Australia and New Zealand to supply a failed Gallipoli campaign, which attempted to forge a supply line to Russia by capturing the Dardanelles.  Instead, these three colonies suffered heavy losses that left them bitter about Britain, and desirous of independence from the British empire.

Britain drew upon its colonies of Canada, Australia and New Zealand to supply a failed Gallipoli campaign, which attempted to forge a supply line to Russia by capturing the Dardanelles.  Instead, these three colonies suffered heavy losses that left them bitter about Britain, and desirous of independence from the British empire.