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Although it profited from the sale of tobacco, the Jamestown settlement had many difficulties.  It had made peace with Indian [[Chief Powhatan]], whose daughter Pocahontas married settler [[John Rolfe]].  But after Powhatan died, his brother led a sudden attack on the settlers in 1622, massacring 357 out of just 1200 (killing more than 25% of the settlement).

Although it profited from the sale of tobacco, the Jamestown settlement had many difficulties.  It had made peace with Indian [[Chief Powhatan]], whose daughter Pocahontas married settler [[John Rolfe]].  But after Powhatan died, his brother led a sudden attack on the settlers in 1622, massacring 357 out of just 1200 (killing more than 25% of the settlement).

But Indian strife was only one of many problems.  Labor was in short supply for working the fields.  Settlers began importing indentured servants, who received free travel to the colonies in exchange for a promise to work for seven years.  Virginia turned to a cheaper form of labor: importing slaves from West Africa beginning in 1619 to work the crops.  The importation of slaves to the New World was not new in 1619; many European countries had been importing a total of 40,000 slaves to the New World prior to the 1600's based on the Portuguese plantation system for working the land.

Indian strife was only one of many problems.  Labor was in short supply for working the fields.  Settlers began importing indentured servants, who received free travel to the colonies in exchange for a promise to work for seven years.  Virginia turned to a cheaper form of labor: importing slaves from West Africa beginning in 1619 to work the crops.  The importation of slaves to the New World was not new in 1619; many European countries had been importing a total of 40,000 slaves to the New World prior to the 1600's based on the Portuguese plantation system for working the land.

In 1624 King James (of the "King James Bible" fame) took back ownership and control of the Virginia colony and established it as a royal charter.  The Virginia colony was mess, a problem colony that enslaved workers and grew tobacco.  More trouble was in its future.  In 1676, Nathanial Bacon was a Virginia settler who decided to take the law into his own hands.  He first massacred Indians in western Virginia, then took his small army of rebels to Jamestown, where he burned it down because the governor had refused to allow him to kill the Indians.  Bacon himself soon died from a disease.  This is known as [[Bacon's Rebellion]] and it resulted in less use of indentured servants and greater reliance on slaves, who could not rebel as easily.  Once he was sure Bacon was really dead, the governor returned and hung two dozen of his supporters.

In 1624 King James (of the "King James Bible" fame) took back ownership and control of the Virginia colony and established it as a royal charter.  The Virginia colony was mess, a problem colony that enslaved workers and grew tobacco.  More trouble was in its future.  In 1676, Nathanial Bacon was a Virginia settler who decided to take the law into his own hands.  He first massacred Indians in western Virginia, then took his small army of rebels to Jamestown, where he burned it down because the governor had refused to allow him to kill the Indians.  Bacon himself soon died from a disease.  This is known as [[Bacon's Rebellion]] and it resulted in less use of indentured servants and greater reliance on slaves, who could not rebel as easily.  Once he was sure Bacon was really dead, the governor returned and hung two dozen of his supporters.

But while Roger Williams was highly moral, others in Rhode Island made it the biggest importer of slaves in all the colonies.  So censoring religion led to harm.  In contrast, in the larger Massachusetts, taxes funded religious institutions for nearly 200 years, until at least the 1830s.  It successfully prohibited slavery.   

But while Roger Williams was highly moral, others in Rhode Island made it the biggest importer of slaves in all the colonies.  So censoring religion led to harm.  In contrast, in the larger Massachusetts, taxes funded religious institutions for nearly 200 years, until at least the 1830s.  It successfully prohibited slavery.   

Another devout Christian who disagreed with the Puritans, [[Anne Hutchinson]], was tried by them in 1636 for emphasizing "grace" rather than "works", and she was forced to flee.  She escaped the Puritans but was later killed by Indians.  Religious persecution continued in Massachusetts in the mid-1600s: the Baptists were banished in 1651, and the Quakers were expelled or -- when they remained or returned -- they were hung.

Another devout Christian who disagreed with the Puritans, [[Anne Hutchinson]], was tried by them in 1636 for emphasizing "grace" rather than "works", and she was forced to flee.  She escaped the Puritans but was later killed by Indians.  Religious persecution continued in Massachusetts in the mid-1600s: the Baptists were banished in 1651, and the Quakers were expelled or -- when they remained or returned -- they were executed when Puritans hanged them.

The Congregational Church was started by Pilgrims in Plymouth (1620) as Independents.  Like the Puritans themselves, the Congregationalists declined over time due dispersal of the population on farms, the formation of public schools, and perhaps the biggest reason of all, prosperity and the arrogance it often engenders.

The Congregational Church was started by Pilgrims in Plymouth (1620) as Independents.  Like the Puritans themselves, the Congregationalists declined over time due dispersal of the population on farms, the formation of public schools, and perhaps the biggest reason of all, prosperity and the arrogance it often engenders.

Cracks in the Puritan way became clear in the Halfway Covenant of 1657.  This was an agreement (a covenant) achieved at an assembly of Puritans from Massachusetts and Connecticut to allow halfway church membership and baptism for sinners.  Second and third-generation Puritans seemed more interested in money than having the "born again" religious conversion necessary to become a full member of the Puritan Church and required in order to be allowed to baptize their children in the Church.  The Reverend Solomon Stoddard, whose grandson would be [[Jonathan Edwards]] (whom we will discuss in the next class), proposed partial or "halfway" membership in the Church of children and grandchildren of Church members.  All the children and grandchildren need do was accept the Covenant and agree to the beliefs and rules of the Church, in order to participate in the sacraments of the Church.  But they would not be allowed to vote on any Church issues until they had a spiritual conversion.  This approach was adopted, but continued to be resisted by people on both sides of the issue:  some who thought it was too lenient, and others who found it too strict.

Cracks in the Puritan way became clear in the Halfway Covenant of 1657.  This was an agreement (a covenant) achieved at an assembly of Puritans from Massachusetts and Connecticut to allow halfway church membership and baptism for sinners.  Second and third-generation Puritans seemed more interested in money than having the "born again" religious conversion necessary to become a full member of the Puritan Church and to be allowed to baptize their children in the Church.  The Reverend Solomon Stoddard, whose grandson would be [[Jonathan Edwards]] (whom we will discuss in the next class), proposed partial or '''''"halfway" membership''''' in the Church of children and grandchildren of Church members.  All the children and grandchildren need do was accept the Covenant and agree to the beliefs and rules of the Church, in order to participate in the sacraments of the Church.  But they would not be allowed to vote on any Church issues until they had a spiritual conversion.  This "halfway covenant" was adopted, but continued to be resisted by people on both sides of the issue:  some who thought it was too lenient, and others opposed it as too strict.

'''Debate:  were the Puritans right to be strict and to expel people of other religions?'''

'''Debate:  were the Puritans right to be strict and to expel people of other religions?'''

One prominent textbook claims, under "Rhode Island," that "This belief [by Roger Williams] in the separation of church and state became a cornerstone of the American Constitution in 1787."  That is completely false.  Roger Williams was long dead by 1787, and there is no separation of church and state in the Constitution.  Rhode Island did not even send any representatives to draft the Constitution and it had no role in the drafting of the Bill of Rights.  In fact, Rhode Island did not ratify the Constitution until after George Washington was elected president, and even then it took much arm-twisting to compel Rhode Island to ratify the Constitution.  But some people want to keep religion out of government, and they refuse to admit that the First Amendment only prohibits the establishment of a national church by the government.  Also, Rhode Island was the '''only''' colony that supported a "separation" of church and state.  Other colonies actually funded religion in various ways.

One prominent textbook claims, under "Rhode Island," that "This belief [by Roger Williams] in the separation of church and state became a cornerstone of the American Constitution in 1787."  That is completely false.  Roger Williams was long dead by 1787, and there is no separation of church and state in the Constitution.  Rhode Island did not even send any representatives to draft the Constitution and it had no role in the drafting of the Bill of Rights.  In fact, Rhode Island did not ratify the Constitution until after George Washington was elected president, and even then Rhode Island only reluctantly ratified the Constitution.  The First Amendment prohibits only the establishment of a national church by the government, not the support of religion by state governments.  Also, Rhode Island was the '''only''' colony that had a "separation" of church and state.  Other colonies, such as Massachusetts, funded religious institutions.

In between Massachusetts and Virginia there was a third approach:  that taken by Pennsylvania.  William Penn was another extraordinary Englishman.  He converted to become a Quaker in England and began practicing that religion in violation of English law.  He was arrested and prosecuted, but the jury refused to convict him.  The king owed his father money, and gave the son what is today Pennsylvania.  It was nothing but woods at the time.  But William Penn founded his colony based on one principle:  religious freedom for all.  He advertised in Europe and attracted peoples of many nationalities in addition to the English.   

In between Massachusetts and Virginia there was a third approach:  that taken by Pennsylvania.  William Penn was another extraordinary Englishman.  He converted to become a Quaker in England and began practicing that religion in violation of English law.  He was arrested and prosecuted, but the jury refused to convict him.  The king owed his father money, and gave the son what is today Pennsylvania.  It was nothing but woods at the time.  William Penn founded Pennsylvania based on this principle:  religious freedom for all.  He advertised in Europe and attracted peoples of many nationalities in addition to the English.   

Penn was very kind to the Indians and soon had the most popular colony in America.  Philadelphia, which means "brotherly love" in Greek, became America's greatest city, surpassing Boston in population in the 1700s.  Only Pennsylvania and Maryland survived long-term under private ownership.  Most of the other colonies were eventually taken over by the King of England, often due to troubles that arose in the colony.

Penn was very kind to the Indians and soon had the most popular colony in America.  Philadelphia, which means "brotherly love" in Greek, became America's greatest city, surpassing Boston in population in the 1700s.  Only Pennsylvania and Maryland survived long-term under private ownership.  Most of the other colonies were eventually taken over by the King of England, often due to troubles that arose in the colony.

The Spanish system looked better in theory, because the encomendero was supposed to educate the encomiendas, convert them to Christianity (Catholicism), and not exercise any political power over them (as in telling them how to live).  In practice, however, there were no "checks and balances" preventing exploitation and abuse of power in working the Indians.

The Spanish system looked better in theory, because the encomendero was supposed to educate the encomiendas, convert them to Christianity (Catholicism), and not exercise any political power over them (as in telling them how to live).  In practice, however, there were no "checks and balances" preventing exploitation and abuse of power in working the Indians.

College Board exams may ask about the "triangular trade" that supposedly dominated from 1640-1720.  Modern historians have used the image of triangle to show trade routes from West Africa to the New World America (the West Indies or the colonies), from there to Europe (England or continental Europe), and from there the boats presumably traveled back to West Africa to begin again.  The harshest part of this route was the taking of slaves, bound in chains from West Africa to the New World.  After the slaves disembarked, the New World would load goods onto the ships (such as raw molasses if the West Indies, or tobacco if Virginia) for transport to Europe. But what does not make sense about this theory is the following:  what would Europe send on the ships back to Africa?  Nothing comes to mind (other than a few goods to purchase the slaves), and not a single instance of an actual triangle route has ever been found.  Perhaps finished product, like rum from the molasses, would be loaded onto the ships, but its intended destination would be the colonies, not Africa.  So in reality the only triangle could only be traversed by the boats, not by actual trade.

A "triangular trade" supposedly existed from 1640-1720.  The three sides of the "triangle" were trade routes from West Africa to the New World America (the West Indies or the colonies), from there to Europe (England or continental Europe), and from there the boats presumably traveled back to West Africa to begin again.  The harshest part of this route was the taking of slaves, bound in chains from West Africa to the New World.  After the slaves disembarked, the New World would load goods onto the ships (such as raw molasses if the West Indies, or tobacco if Virginia) for transport to Europe.

 

 

== A Word About College Board Exams ==

== A Word About College Board Exams ==

The AP, or Advanced Placement exam, is given only once a year early in May at local high schools, and is more expensive.  It includes both multiple-choice and essay questions, and is used by more colleges to give credit for courses.  The student must sign up for it long in advance, and make arrangements with a nearby high school.

The AP, or Advanced Placement exam, is given only once a year early in May at local high schools, and is more expensive.  It includes both multiple-choice and essay questions, and is used by more colleges to give credit for courses.  The student must sign up for it long in advance, and make arrangements with a nearby high school.

The SAT II in American History is an inexpensive multiple-choice exam that takes only an hour and is given at high schools on Saturdays once a month, October through June, with registration available online at www.collegeboard.com .  No college credit is given for it, but it is used for college applications to recognize achievement.  The SAT II is the cheapest and most biased of the three exams, and is known for emphasizing liberal culture.  Also, what counts as "economic history" is not what you might expect.  There are almost no questions about the [[conservative]] gold standard, for example, even though that issue has been important throughout history (and was even an issue in [[Ron Paul]]'s campaign for presidency in 2008).  Instead, questions about economic history on the SAT II are likely to be about unions, the treatment of workers, alleged corruption of big business, discrimination, and gender issues.

The SAT II in American History is an inexpensive multiple-choice exam that takes only an hour and is given at high schools on Saturdays once a month, October through June, with registration available online at www.collegeboard.com .  No college credit is given for it, but it is used for college applications to recognize achievement.  The SAT II is the cheapest of the three exams, but also the most politically biased in its selection of questions.

 

Notice what is missing on the College Board exams:  military history.  Unfortunately, many educators in the [[United States]] dislike the military, and that bias shows up on the exams.  No questions are there about battles or key military strategies and decisions.  The only time the military shows up on these exams is when they have a political impact.

Each of these College Board exams can be taken as often as one likes, though it is difficult to take the AP exam more than once because it is offered only once a year, and it is expensive to retake the CLEP exam.  The SAT II, which is cheaper, is the easiest to take more than once and colleges look only at the highest score.

All of the College Board exams omit military history, due to their political bias.  For example, there are almost no questions about battles.

Our class has only two required, multiple-choice exams:  a midterm and a final, and weekly homework assignments.

Each of these College Board exams can be taken as often as one likes, and colleges use the highest scores.  Our class has only two required, multiple-choice exams:  a midterm and a final, and weekly homework assignments.

== References ==

== References ==