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American foreign policy (view source)

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'''American foreign policy''' covers the foreign relations and diplomacy of the United States since 1775. Responsibility is held by the president, the Secretary of State and the [[U.S. Department of State]], the [[National Security Council]], and other agencies such as the departments of Defense and the Treasury.

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==American Revolution to 1789==

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==American Revolution to 1789==

* [[American Revolution]], 1775-1783

* [[Treaty of Alliance with France (1778)]]

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* [[American Empire]]

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The main achievements were a military and financial alliance with France (which brought in Spain and Hollad as well to fight the British), turning the American Revolution into a world war in which the British naval and military superemacy was neutralized. The ~~diplomats--especially~~ [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[John Adams]] and [[Thomas Jefferson]] secured recognition of American independence and large loans to the new national government. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 was highly favorable to the United States.

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The main achievements were a military and financial alliance with France (which brought in Spain and Hollad as well to fight the British), turning the American Revolution into a world war in which the British naval and military superemacy was neutralized. The diplomats—especially [[Benjamin Franklin]], [[John Adams]] and [[Thomas Jefferson]] secured recognition of American independence and large loans to the new national government. The Treaty of Paris in 1783 was highly favorable to the United States.

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* [[Louisiana Purchase]], 1803

* [[Embargo of 1807]]

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* [[War of 1812]], ~~1812-15~~

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* [[War of 1812]], 1812–15

* [[Treaty of Ghent]], 1814; ended war of 1812

* [[Manifest Destiny]]

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* [[Mexican American War]], ~~1846-48~~

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* [[Mexican American War]], 1846–48

* [[Monroe Doctrine]], 1823+

* [[Quasi-War]], 1798-1800

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The only hope for Confederate victory in the [[American Civil War homefront|Civil War]] was military intervention by Britain and France. It was a serious possibility if British or French leaders thought it was to their long-term advantage to have two antagonistic powers in North America to neutralize each other.

===France===

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Paris was building an empire in Mexico, with its puppet "Emperor" Maximilian propped up by French bayonets. Washington saw this as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine, but avoided any confrontation until the war was over.<ref> After Appomattox, Washington sent tens of thousands of battle-hardened troops to the Mexican border. Paris finally pulled out; the Mexicans shot Maximilian. Richmond tolerated the French aggression. If somehow the Confederacy had become independent, it would have faced powerful enemies to its north and its south. </ref> The French navy was building up ironclad strength, but not as fast as the US Navy. Furthermore, the French people would never support such a war with the US, and if one broke out France might be attacked by Prussia (as happened in 1870). France would not move alone, but it would join Britain in a war. London, however, realized that the British people would never support such a war. Furthermore, the long-term economic prosperity of Britain depended on friendly commercial and financial ties with the US. Idle speculation about intervention always came crashing into the bottom line: Washington would declare war immediately on any nation that so much as exchanged ambassadors with Richmond. Not one nation did so; Confederate diplomats had only deuces to play.<ref> Lynn M. Case and Warren F. Spencer, ''The United States and France: Civil War Diplomacy'' (1970)</ref>

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Paris was building an empire in Mexico, with its puppet "Emperor" Maximilian propped up by French bayonets. Washington saw this as a violation of the Monroe Doctrine, but avoided any confrontation until the war was over.<ref>After Appomattox, Washington sent tens of thousands of battle-hardened troops to the Mexican border. Paris finally pulled out; the Mexicans shot Maximilian. Richmond tolerated the French aggression. If somehow the Confederacy had become independent, it would have faced powerful enemies to its north and its south.</ref> The French navy was building up ironclad strength, but not as fast as the US Navy. Furthermore, the French people would never support such a war with the US, and if one broke out France might be attacked by Prussia (as happened in 1870). France would not move alone, but it would join Britain in a war. London, however, realized that the British people would never support such a war. Furthermore, the long-term economic prosperity of Britain depended on friendly commercial and financial ties with the US. Idle speculation about intervention always came crashing into the bottom line: Washington would declare war immediately on any nation that so much as exchanged ambassadors with Richmond. Not one nation did so; Confederate diplomats had only deuces to play.<ref>Lynn M. Case and Warren F. Spencer, ''The United States and France: Civil War Diplomacy'' (1970)</ref>

===Crisis with Britain: the Trent Affair===

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A grave blunder by the United States almost precipitated war with Britain in late 1861. On November 7, a US Navy warship under command of hotheaded Captain Charles Wilkes, intercepted on the high seas the "Trent," a British merchant ship steam making a routine run from Havana. After firing a shot across the bow, Wilkes sent heavily armed Marines aboard and seized two passengers aboard, James Mason and John Slidell, the Confederate ambassadors to London and Paris. Wilkes released the ship but took the prisoners to Boston, where he received a jubilant welcome as the hero of the hour. The seizure was a clear violation of Britain's rights as a neutral, and London protested vehemently. More practically, it drew up war plans, mobilized the Royal Navy, and sent 13,000 regulars to Canada. British strategists realized that in a war with the US, Canada would be quickly captured. The regiments were sent as a gesture, and as an indication Britain would win Canada back at the peace conference. The large, well-trained Royal Navy, now being rebuilt around heavily armed ironclads, was ready for a major fleet battle, as the American blockade squadrons were not. Should war break out, the British fleet would swoop down on the blockaders and sink or capture them. After that the fleet would sail into New York harbor and either capture Manhattan or at least close down the leading American city. New York could then be traded for Canada at the peace conference. The British war plans had a reasonable chance of success, especially if the French joined in.<ref>

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A grave blunder by the United States almost precipitated war with Britain in late 1861. On November 7, a US Navy warship under command of hotheaded Captain Charles Wilkes, intercepted on the high seas the "Trent," a British merchant ship steam making a routine run from Havana. After firing a shot across the bow, Wilkes sent heavily armed Marines aboard and seized two passengers aboard, James Mason and John Slidell, the Confederate ambassadors to London and Paris. Wilkes released the ship but took the prisoners to Boston, where he received a jubilant welcome as the hero of the hour. The seizure was a clear violation of Britain's rights as a neutral, and London protested vehemently. More practically, it drew up war plans, mobilized the Royal Navy, and sent 13,000 regulars to Canada. British strategists realized that in a war with the US, Canada would be quickly captured. The regiments were sent as a gesture, and as an indication Britain would win Canada back at the peace conference. The large, well-trained Royal Navy, now being rebuilt around heavily armed ironclads, was ready for a major fleet battle, as the American blockade squadrons were not. Should war break out, the British fleet would swoop down on the blockaders and sink or capture them. After that the fleet would sail into New York harbor and either capture Manhattan or at least close down the leading American city. New York could then be traded for Canada at the peace conference. The British war plans had a reasonable chance of success, especially if the French joined in.<ref>

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Kenneth Bourne, "British Preparations for War with the North, 1861-1862," ''English Historical Review'', Vol. 76, No. 301 (Oct., 1961), pp. 600-632 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/558199 in JSTOR]</ref> Their capabilities made known, the British invited Washington to negotiate the release of Mason and Slidell. Lincoln and Secretary of State Seward saw the danger. Thanks to the intervention of Queen Victoria's husband, a showdown was avoided. Although the seizure of the rebel diplomats had been wildly hailed in the States as a naval triumph and a tweak of the lion's tail, they were released and an apology was given London. The war scare passed.<ref> Howard Jones, ''Union in Peril: The Crisis Over British Intervention in the Civil War'' (1992); Charles Francis Adams, "The Trent Affair," ''American Historical Review'', Vol. 17, No. 3 (Apr., 1912), pp. 540-562 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1834388 in JSTOR] </ref>

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Kenneth Bourne, "British Preparations for War with the North, 1861-1862," ''English Historical Review'', Vol. 76, No. 301 (Oct., 1961), pp. 600-632 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/558199 in JSTOR]</ref> Their capabilities made known, the British invited Washington to negotiate the release of Mason and Slidell. Lincoln and Secretary of State Seward saw the danger. Thanks to the intervention of Queen Victoria's husband, a showdown was avoided. Although the seizure of the rebel diplomats had been wildly hailed in the States as a naval triumph and a tweak of the lion's tail, they were released and an apology was given London. The war scare passed.<ref>Howard Jones, ''Union in Peril: The Crisis Over British Intervention in the Civil War'' (1992); Charles Francis Adams, "The Trent Affair," ''American Historical Review'', Vol. 17, No. 3 (Apr., 1912), pp. 540-562 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1834388 in JSTOR]</ref>

By 1862 it was clear that the Confederates were on the defensive. The announcement of the "Emancipation Proclamation" by Lincoln in September, 1862, made the end of slavery an explicit war goal, and ruined any Confederate hopes of intervention from Europe.

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The Confederates did manage to purchase warships from neutral Britain and use them to destroy much of the U.S. merchant marine. Britain violated its neutrality in so doing. The US held Britain accountable after the war, and arbitration gave the US a large cash award of $15 million for the damage done.

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==Late 19th Century==

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==Late 19th Century==

In 1889 GOP President [[Benjamin Harrison]] appointed party leader [[James G. Blaine]] as Secretary of State. During three years of service in this office, helped open the nation's engagement with the outside world.<ref>A. T. Volwiler, "Harrison, Blaine, and American Foreign Policy, 1889-1893," ''Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society,'' Vol. 79, No. 4 (Nov. 15, 1938), pp. 637-648 [http://www.jstor.org/stable/984943 in JSTOR]; Robert L. Beisner, ''From the Old Diplomacy to the New, 1865—1900.'' (2d ed., 1986); Edward P. Crapol, ''James G. Blaine: Architect of Empire.'' (2000); David Healy, ''James G. Blaine and Latin America'' (2001) [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=109808323 online edition]

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</ref> Blaine focused on relations with Latin-American and Britain. He pushed for an canal across Panama, built, operated, and controlled by the United States; he secured Congressional legislation resulting in the Pan-American Conference which met in Washington in October, 1889. Blaine's set up the Bureau of American Republics in Washington.<ref> Healy (2001)</ref> As an early environmentalist he used diplomacy to protect the seal herds in the Pribilof Islands of Alaska.<ref>Charles S. Campbell, Jr., "The Anglo-American Crisis in the Bering Sea, 1890-1891." ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' 1961 48(3): 393-414. Issn: 0161-391x Fulltext: in Jstor </ref> He tried to annex Hawaii (which almost succeeded in early 1893, but was postponed to 1898). Indeed, the permanent influence of Blaine on American life was through his foreign policy. Although Blaine concluded tariff reciprocity agreements with eight Latin American nations, reciprocity negotiations with Canada stalled in 1891-92. Harrison and Blaine feared a political backlash from American farmers and lumbermen if concessions were made to Canada. Blaine's Anglophobia also influenced the outcome of the negotiations, and Canada's negotiators to the end resisted the inclusion of reciprocity on manufactured articles in any treaty.<ref> Allan B. Spetter, "Harrison and Blaine: No Reciprocity for Canada." ''Canadian Review of American Studies'' 1981 12(2): 143-156. Issn: 0007-7720 </ref> The two most important reciprocity agreements were signed with Brazil and with Spain for Cuba and Puerto Rico.

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</ref> Blaine focused on relations with Latin-American and Britain. He pushed for an canal across Panama, built, operated, and controlled by the United States; he secured Congressional legislation resulting in the Pan-American Conference which met in Washington in October, 1889. Blaine's set up the Bureau of American Republics in Washington.<ref>Healy (2001)</ref> As an early environmentalist he used diplomacy to protect the seal herds in the Pribilof Islands of Alaska.<ref>Charles S. Campbell, Jr., "The Anglo-American Crisis in the Bering Sea, 1890-1891." ''Mississippi Valley Historical Review'' 1961 48(3): 393-414. Issn: 0161-391x Fulltext: in Jstor</ref> He tried to annex Hawaii (which almost succeeded in early 1893, but was postponed to 1898). Indeed, the permanent influence of Blaine on American life was through his foreign policy. Although Blaine concluded tariff reciprocity agreements with eight Latin American nations, reciprocity negotiations with Canada stalled in 1891-92. Harrison and Blaine feared a political backlash from American farmers and lumbermen if concessions were made to Canada. Blaine's Anglophobia also influenced the outcome of the negotiations, and Canada's negotiators to the end resisted the inclusion of reciprocity on manufactured articles in any treaty.<ref>Allan B. Spetter, "Harrison and Blaine: No Reciprocity for Canada." ''Canadian Review of American Studies'' 1981 12(2): 143-156. Issn: 0007-7720</ref> The two most important reciprocity agreements were signed with Brazil and with Spain for Cuba and Puerto Rico.

In foreign policy Blaine was a transitional figure, marking the end of one era in foreign policy and foreshadowing the next. Blaine brought energy, imagination and verve to the office in sharp contrast with his somnolent rivals, inspiring his activist twentieth-century successors. He was a pioneer in arbitration treaties, tariff reciprocity, and American administration of Latin American customs houses. to avert civil wars over the revenue stream. Blaine wanted the the U.S. to be the protector and leader of the Western Hemisphere, even if the Latin America countries disagreed. He insisted on keeping the Americas away from European control while favoring peaceful arbitration and negotiations rather than war. Blaine forcefully argued for the national interests of his country. He kept the big picture firmly in mind, seeking long-term programs and not simply short-term fixes for the matter at hand.

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==1898-1945==

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==1898-1945==

===War with Spain===

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Americans, angered at Spain's cruel suppression of Cuban freedom fighters, demanded immediate reforms. Spain ~~delayed--even~~ as the explosion of the [[Battleship Maine]] in Havana harbor escalated tensions. President [[William McKinley]], faced with Spanish obstinacy, was unable to stop the public demands for war. The U.S. declared war and speedily defeated the Spanish. Cuba became an American protectorate and the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam became American possessions. Anti-imperialist, led by [[William Jennings Bryan]], (the Democratic nominee for president in 1896 and 1900) supported the war but rejected the Philippines annexation. McKinley easily defeated Bryan in 1900, and quickly suppressed a local insurgency in the Philippines. After a decade or so, the Republicans lost interest in empire building, and by the 1920s the Philippines was on the road to independence. [[File:Columbia4.jpg|thumb|220px|Columbia is a sailor in President [[William McKinley]]'s navy, and is trying on "world power" on April 6, 1901; the feather is smoke representing expansion into the Pacific and Caribbean]]

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Americans, angered at Spain's cruel suppression of Cuban freedom fighters, demanded immediate reforms. Spain delayed—even as the explosion of the [[Battleship Maine]] in Havana harbor escalated tensions. President [[William McKinley]], faced with Spanish obstinacy, was unable to stop the public demands for war. The U.S. declared war and speedily defeated the Spanish. Cuba became an American protectorate and the Philippines, Puerto Rico and Guam became American possessions. Anti-imperialist, led by [[William Jennings Bryan]], (the Democratic nominee for president in 1896 and 1900) supported the war but rejected the Philippines annexation. McKinley easily defeated Bryan in 1900, and quickly suppressed a local insurgency in the Philippines. After a decade or so, the Republicans lost interest in empire building, and by the 1920s the Philippines was on the road to independence. [[File:Columbia4.jpg|thumb|220px|Columbia is a sailor in President [[William McKinley]]'s navy, and is trying on "world power" on April 6, 1901; the feather is smoke representing expansion into the Pacific and Caribbean]]

===Open Door Policy===

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===Roosevelt and Big Stick Diplomacy===

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Roosevelt's administration was marked by an active approach to foreign policy. He followed four basic principles: 1) promoting broadly defined American interests worldwide, 2) building American military and naval power and control over strategic points (especially the Panama canal and its approaches), 3) cooperation with the British, and 4) there was a social contract between the nation's citizens and its government, such that civilized nations had a right of intervention in cases in which such a contract had been broken. His foreign policy was well suited for the challenges of the world; he anticipated later attitudes and developments well into the 20th century and even the 21st century, as exemplified by [[John McCain]] in 2008.<ref> M. Patrick Cullinane, "Invoking Teddy: the Inspiration of John McCain's Foreign Policy." ''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 2008 19(4): 767-786 </ref> He combined a credible realist and internationalist approach with great attention to detail and full appreciation of the importance of diplomatic finesse.

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Roosevelt's administration was marked by an active approach to foreign policy. He followed four basic principles: 1) promoting broadly defined American interests worldwide, 2) building American military and naval power and control over strategic points (especially the Panama canal and its approaches), 3) cooperation with the British, and 4) there was a social contract between the nation's citizens and its government, such that civilized nations had a right of intervention in cases in which such a contract had been broken. His foreign policy was well suited for the challenges of the world; he anticipated later attitudes and developments well into the 20th century and even the 21st century, as exemplified by [[John McCain]] in 2008.<ref>M. Patrick Cullinane, "Invoking Teddy: the Inspiration of John McCain's Foreign Policy." ''Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 2008 19(4): 767-786</ref> He combined a credible realist and internationalist approach with great attention to detail and full appreciation of the importance of diplomatic finesse.

[[File:Tr-militarist-1904World.jpg|thumb|350px| The ''New York World'' newspaper, mouthpiece of liberal Democrats, blasts TR as a dangerous militaristic dictator in 1904]]

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====Roosevelt Corollary and Panama Canal====

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The '''Roosevelt Corollary''' to the [[Monroe Doctrine]] was a substantial expansion in 1904. Roosevelt asserted the right of the United States to intervene to stabilize the economic affairs of small nations in the Caribbean and Central America if they were unable to pay their international debts and were at risk of intervention by European powers. The new policy primarily prevented intervention by Britain and Germany, which loaned money to the countries that did not repay. The catalyst of the new policy was Germany's aggressiveness in the Venezuela affair of 1902-03. The intervention took the form of takeover of the customs collection, and disbursement of the funds to the debtors and claimants. The policy was unpopular abroad.<ref>Serge Ricard, "The Roosevelt Corollary." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 2006 36(1): 17-26. Issn: 0360-4918, online </ref>

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The '''Roosevelt Corollary''' to the [[Monroe Doctrine]] was a substantial expansion in 1904. Roosevelt asserted the right of the United States to intervene to stabilize the economic affairs of small nations in the Caribbean and Central America if they were unable to pay their international debts and were at risk of intervention by European powers. The new policy primarily prevented intervention by Britain and Germany, which loaned money to the countries that did not repay. The catalyst of the new policy was Germany's aggressiveness in the Venezuela affair of 1902-03. The intervention took the form of takeover of the customs collection, and disbursement of the funds to the debtors and claimants. The policy was unpopular abroad.<ref>Serge Ricard, "The Roosevelt Corollary." ''Presidential Studies Quarterly'' 2006 36(1): 17-26. Issn: 0360-4918, online</ref>

[[Image:Panam2.JPG|thumb|350px|Roosevelt builds the canal—and shovels dirt on Bogota, the capital of Colombia]]

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Inspired by [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]]'s extraordinarily influential book ''The Influence of Sea Power upon History'' (1890), Roosevelt believed that American security and geopolitical power could be secured only through naval supremacy. This was particularly important in the Caribbean because of its proximity to the United States, European interest in the area, and its status as a critical juncture of trade routes. Roosevelt was able to maintain US dominance of the Caribbean without resorting to major military action.<ref> James R. Holmes, "Roosevelt's Pursuit of a Temperate Caribbean Policy." ''Naval History'' 2006 20(4): 48-53 in [[EBSCO]]</ref>

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Inspired by [[Alfred Thayer Mahan]]'s extraordinarily influential book ''The Influence of Sea Power upon History'' (1890), Roosevelt believed that American security and geopolitical power could be secured only through naval supremacy. This was particularly important in the Caribbean because of its proximity to the United States, European interest in the area, and its status as a critical juncture of trade routes. Roosevelt was able to maintain US dominance of the Caribbean without resorting to major military action.<ref>James R. Holmes, "Roosevelt's Pursuit of a Temperate Caribbean Policy." ''Naval History'' 2006 20(4): 48-53 in [[EBSCO]]</ref>

In particular, Roosevelt stressed the strategic necessity of the [[Panama Canal]], which opened up the Pacific Coast and Asia to cheap shipping, and made it possible for the Navy to move rapidly between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

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Tensions with Mexico, then in the throes of a violent civil war, escalated almost to the point of warfare. The U.S. sent military forces to chase Pancho Villa and to control the port of Vera Cruz. In 1917 both parties pulled back, and by 1920 the civil war was over.

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More serious was the worldwide Great War (now called [[World War I]] that began in 1914 and was killing millions of soldiers to no apparent end. Proclaiming neutrality, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] tried repeatedly to broker peace in 1915-1916, but the adversaries in Europe were both planning to win and did not want a negotiated settlement. After Germany started sinking American merchant ships in 1917, and tried to entice Mexico into going to war with the U.S. Wilson in April 1917 asked and received a declaration of war from Congress. Wilson argued persuasively that it was now necessary to fight against militarism and for democracy in the world. He set up a draft and trained millions of soldiers, sending the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] to the [[Western Front]] in France under the command of General [[John J. Pershing]]. The Americans and the Allies defeated the Germans in late ~~1918--the~~ so-called "armistice" was in effect a German surrender.

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More serious was the worldwide Great War (now called [[World War I]] that began in 1914 and was killing millions of soldiers to no apparent end. Proclaiming neutrality, President [[Woodrow Wilson]] tried repeatedly to broker peace in 1915-1916, but the adversaries in Europe were both planning to win and did not want a negotiated settlement. After Germany started sinking American merchant ships in 1917, and tried to entice Mexico into going to war with the U.S. Wilson in April 1917 asked and received a declaration of war from Congress. Wilson argued persuasively that it was now necessary to fight against militarism and for democracy in the world. He set up a draft and trained millions of soldiers, sending the [[American Expeditionary Forces]] to the [[Western Front]] in France under the command of General [[John J. Pershing]]. The Americans and the Allies defeated the Germans in late 1918—the so-called "armistice" was in effect a German surrender.