Changes

====Black migration====

====Black migration====

Chicago's black population swelled dramatically during World War I as immigration from Europe was impossible and factories demanded more and more war workers.  Whites got the factory jobs, but many opportunities opened for black men and women. Economic conditions for the city's blacks during the 1920s were much better than in the South, but were also characterized by chronic unemployment and low wage rates. Many families living below the poverty line. These conditions were caused primarily by employers' discriminatory hiring and promotion policies, a surplus of labor at a time of continued black migration from the South, and residential segregation in the African American neighborhoods of Chicago. Consequently, the economic conditions that brought about political radicalization and realignment of African Americans during the 1930s, and which are associated primarily with the Great Depression, were in evidence throughout much of the 1920s. Accordingly, the Great Migration of the 1910s and 1920s, rather than being seen largely as a phenomenon associated with World War I, takes on greater significance in terms of its economic and political repercussions in black Chicago in the years before the depression.<ref>Gareth Canaan, "'Part of the Loaf': Economic Conditions of Chicago's African-American Working Class During the 1920's." ''Journal of Social History'' 2001 35(1): 147-174. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]]</ref>

Chicago's black population swelled dramatically during World War I as immigration from Europe was impossible and factories demanded more and more war workers.  Whites got the factory jobs, but many opportunities opened for black men and women. Economic conditions for the city's blacks during the 1920s were much better than in the South, but were also characterized by chronic unemployment and low wage rates. Many families living below the poverty line. These conditions were caused primarily by employers' discriminatory hiring and promotion policies, a surplus of labor at a time of continued black migration from the South, and residential segregation in the African American neighborhoods of Chicago. Consequently, the economic conditions that brought about political radicalization and realignment of African Americans during the 1930s, and which are associated primarily with the Great Depression, were in evidence throughout much of the 1920s. Accordingly, the Great Migration of the 1910s and 1920s, rather than being seen largely as a phenomenon associated with World War I, takes on greater significance in terms of its economic and political repercussions in black Chicago in the years before the depression.<ref>Gareth Canaan, "'Part of the Loaf': Economic Conditions of Chicago's African-American Working Class During the 1920's." ''Journal of Social History'' 2001 35(1): 147-174. Issn: 0022-4529 Fulltext: Project Muse</ref>

====Polonia====

====Polonia====

Many recent [[mayor]]s of Chicago belonged to the [[Democratic Party]].  The current mayor of Chicago is [[Rahm Emanuel]].  Before him, [[Richard M. Daley]] (b. 1942), who was elected in 1989, was mayor until 2011.  His father, [[Richard J. Daley]] (1902-1976), was mayor from 1955-1976, and controlled the powerful Cook County Democratic organization, called "the machine." <ref>http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/Chicago7/Daley2.html</ref> Current President [[Barack Obama]] spent his politically formative years as a city planner "foot soldier" for the Democratic machine, an experience that deeply affected his political methods and radical beliefs later in life.

Many recent [[mayor]]s of Chicago belonged to the [[Democratic Party]].  The current mayor of Chicago is [[Rahm Emanuel]].  Before him, [[Richard M. Daley]] (b. 1942), who was elected in 1989, was mayor until 2011.  His father, [[Richard J. Daley]] (1902-1976), was mayor from 1955-1976, and controlled the powerful Cook County Democratic organization, called "the machine." <ref>http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/Chicago7/Daley2.html</ref> Current President [[Barack Obama]] spent his politically formative years as a city planner "foot soldier" for the Democratic machine, an experience that deeply affected his political methods and radical beliefs later in life.

The city hosted the [[1968 Democratic National Convention]] when [[Richard J. Daley]] was mayor.  The convention was disrupted by radicals such as [[Abbie Hoffman]].

The city hosted the [[1968 Democratic National Convention]] when Richard J. Daley was mayor.  The convention was disrupted by radicals such as [[Abbie Hoffman]].

Holli (1999) argues that the political regime of Chicago Mayor [[Richard J. Daley]] during 1955-76 was unusually stable during an era of national instability because Daley kept firm control of the governmental machinery, which slowed change to a manageable pace and had a deep and profound appeal to Chicagoans. Ethnic and racial squabbling erupted after Daley's death in 1976 and continued through the tenures of four mayors, even as the rest of the nation entered a period of greater political stability. After the transitory tenure of interim mayor Eugene Sawyer, the years of political instability ended with the 1989 election of the former boss's son, [[Richard M. Daley]]. Young Daley's election marked a return to political calm seen, in the light of equilibrium theory, as inevitable after the tumultuous years that preceded it.<ref>Melvin G. Holli, "Political Equilibrium and the Daley Eras in Chicago." ''Continuity'' 1999 (23): 83-96. Issn: 0277-1446</ref>

Holli (1999) argues that the political regime of Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley during 1955-76 was unusually stable during an era of national instability because Daley kept firm control of the governmental machinery, which slowed change to a manageable pace and had a deep and profound appeal to Chicagoans. Ethnic and racial squabbling erupted after Daley's death in 1976 and continued through the tenures of four mayors, even as the rest of the nation entered a period of greater political stability. After the transitory tenure of interim mayor Eugene Sawyer, the years of political instability ended with the 1989 election of the former boss's son, [[Richard M. Daley]]. Young Daley's election marked a return to political calm seen, in the light of equilibrium theory, as inevitable after the tumultuous years that preceded it.<ref>Melvin G. Holli, "Political Equilibrium and the Daley Eras in Chicago." ''Continuity'' 1999 (23): 83-96. Issn: 0277-1446</ref>

====Public housing====

====Public housing====

=====Hispanic immigrants=====

=====Hispanic immigrants=====

Fernandez (2005) documents the history of Mexican and Puerto Rican immigration and community formation in Chicago after World War II.  Beginning with World War II, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers traveled to the Midwest through varying migrant streams to perform unskilled labor. They settled in separate areas of Chicago. These parallel migrations created historically unique communities where both groups encountered one another in the mid-twentieth century. By the 1950s and 1960s, both groups experienced repeated displacements and dislocations from the Near West Side, the Near North Side and the Lincoln Park neighborhood. At the macro level, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers' life chances were shaped by federal policies regarding immigration, labor, and citizenship. At the local level, they felt the impact of municipal government policies, which had specific racial dimensions. As these populations relocated from one neighborhood to the next, they made efforts to shape their own communities and their futures. During the period of the Civil Rights Movement, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans engaged in social struggles, both in coalition with one another but also as separate, distinct, national minorities. They created organizations and institutions such as Casa Aztlán , the Young Lords Organization, Mujeres Latinas en Acción , the Latin American Defense Organization, and El Centro de la Causa. These organizations drew upon differing strategies based on notions of nation, gender, and class, and at times produced inter-ethnic and inter-racial coalitions.<ref>Lilia Fernández, "Latina/o Migration and Community Formation in Postwar Chicago: Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Gender, and Politics, 1945-1975."  PhD dissertation U. of California, San Diego 2005. 302 pp.  DAI 2006 66(10): 3779-A. DA3191767  Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]. See also Mérida M.  Rúa, "Claims to `the City': Puerto Rican Latinidad amid Labors of Identity, Community, and Belonging in Chicago."  PhD dissertation U. of Michigan 2004. 219 pp.  DAI 2005 65(10): 3877-A. DA3150079   

Fernandez (2005) documents the history of Mexican and Puerto Rican immigration and community formation in Chicago after World War II.  Beginning with World War II, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers traveled to the Midwest through varying migrant streams to perform unskilled labor. They settled in separate areas of Chicago. These parallel migrations created historically unique communities where both groups encountered one another in the mid-twentieth century. By the 1950s and 1960s, both groups experienced repeated displacements and dislocations from the Near West Side, the Near North Side and the Lincoln Park neighborhood. At the macro level, Mexican and Puerto Rican workers' life chances were shaped by federal policies regarding immigration, labor, and citizenship. At the local level, they felt the impact of municipal government policies, which had specific racial dimensions. As these populations relocated from one neighborhood to the next, they made efforts to shape their own communities and their futures. During the period of the Civil Rights Movement, Mexicans and Puerto Ricans engaged in social struggles, both in coalition with one another but also as separate, distinct, national minorities. They created organizations and institutions such as Casa Aztlán, the Young Lords Organization, Mujeres Latinas en Acción, the Latin American Defense Organization, and El Centro de la Causa. These organizations drew upon differing strategies based on notions of nation, gender, and class, and at times produced inter-ethnic and inter-racial coalitions.<ref>Lilia Fernández, "Latina/o Migration and Community Formation in Postwar Chicago: Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Gender, and Politics, 1945-1975."  PhD dissertation U. of California, San Diego 2005. 302 pp.  DAI 2006 66(10): 3779-A. DA3191767  Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]. See also Mérida M.  Rúa, "Claims to `the City': Puerto Rican Latinidad amid Labors of Identity, Community, and Belonging in Chicago."  PhD dissertation U. of Michigan 2004. 219 pp.  DAI 2005 65(10): 3877-A. DA3150079   

Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref>

Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref>

Journalists, novelists and poets shaped Chicago's national and international reputation.  Images and representations are important means by which the city is known and negotiated. During the years of rapid urbanization 1890-1930 the numerous daily newspapers presented the most important and pervasive word versions of the city. Among the significant innovations of Chicago's newspapers in these years that shaped the idea of the city was the emergence of the local color columnist. Groeninger (2005) examines the role of columnists in Chicago newspapers in creating a "city of the mind." After a review of the literature on images of cities, the relationship of newspapers to modern city life in the thought of Robert Park, and the world of Chicago's newspapers at the turn-of-the-century, detailed studies of a number of the most important columnists of the era follow. [[George Ade]]'s column of the 1890s in the ''Daily News'', "Stories of the Streets and of the Town," presented a view of Chicago from the perspective of migrants from the small towns of the Midwest. In the same decade [[Finley Peter Dunne]]'s column in the ''Evening Post'', featuring the fictional Irish barkeeper, Mr. Dooley, offered readers a literary version of the Irish working-class neighborhood of Bridgeport. [[Ring Lardner]]'s ''Tribune'' sports column of the teens, "In the Wake of the News," satirized not only Chicagoans obsession with sports, but also the middle-class culture of opera, musical theater, and the newspaper itself. Several columns in the black newspaper, ''The Whip'', offered images of Bronzeville in the 1920s that both reflected and helped shape the experience of African-Americans on the South Side of Chicago. [[Ben Hecht]]'s "1001 Afternoons in Chicago" column in the ''Daily News'' expressed a new, anti-Victorian sensibility in the post-war era, but his most enduring contributions to the image of Chicago were on the stage and in the new medium of film. The columnists who wrote about everyday life in the city were the most distinctive and powerful newspaper voices in shaping the idea of Chicago and the civic personality of the city itself.<ref>David V. Groeninger, "Chicago Imagined: The Role of Newspaper Columnists in Creating a City of the Mind, 1890-1930."  PhD dissertation Loyola U., Chicago 2005. 280 pp.  DAI 2005 66(5): 1925-A. DA3175764  Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]. See also  Sarah Susan Marcus, "Up from the Prairie: Depictions of Chicago and the Middle West in Popular Culture, 1865-1983."  PhD dissertation U. of Wisconsin, Madison 2001. 445 pp.  DAI 2001 62(4): 1554-1555-A. DA3012550  Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref> Often referred to as the "Windy City", many people mistake that saying for the weather. It actually refers to the chatter of deal-making among Chicago politicians, the wind being talk. Chicago was the United States' bid city for the 2016 Olympics, which ultimately were awarded to [[Rio de Janeiro]].

Journalists, novelists and poets shaped Chicago's national and international reputation.  Images and representations are important means by which the city is known and negotiated. During the years of rapid urbanization 1890-1930 the numerous daily newspapers presented the most important and pervasive word versions of the city. Among the significant innovations of Chicago's newspapers in these years that shaped the idea of the city was the emergence of the local color columnist. Groeninger (2005) examines the role of columnists in Chicago newspapers in creating a "city of the mind." After a review of the literature on images of cities, the relationship of newspapers to modern city life in the thought of Robert Park, and the world of Chicago's newspapers at the turn-of-the-century, detailed studies of a number of the most important columnists of the era follow. [[George Ade]]'s column of the 1890s in the ''Daily News'', "Stories of the Streets and of the Town," presented a view of Chicago from the perspective of migrants from the small towns of the Midwest. In the same decade [[Finley Peter Dunne]]'s column in the ''Evening Post'', featuring the fictional Irish barkeeper, Mr. Dooley, offered readers a literary version of the Irish working-class neighborhood of Bridgeport. [[Ring Lardner]]'s ''Tribune'' sports column of the teens, "In the Wake of the News," satirized not only Chicagoans obsession with sports, but also the middle-class culture of opera, musical theater, and the newspaper itself. Several columns in the black newspaper, ''The Whip'', offered images of Bronzeville in the 1920s that both reflected and helped shape the experience of African-Americans on the South Side of Chicago. [[Ben Hecht]]'s "1001 Afternoons in Chicago" column in the ''Daily News'' expressed a new, anti-Victorian sensibility in the post-war era, but his most enduring contributions to the image of Chicago were on the stage and in the new medium of film. The columnists who wrote about everyday life in the city were the most distinctive and powerful newspaper voices in shaping the idea of Chicago and the civic personality of the city itself.<ref>David V. Groeninger, "Chicago Imagined: The Role of Newspaper Columnists in Creating a City of the Mind, 1890-1930."  PhD dissertation Loyola U., Chicago 2005. 280 pp.  DAI 2005 66(5): 1925-A. DA3175764  Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]. See also  Sarah Susan Marcus, "Up from the Prairie: Depictions of Chicago and the Middle West in Popular Culture, 1865-1983."  PhD dissertation U. of Wisconsin, Madison 2001. 445 pp.  DAI 2001 62(4): 1554-1555-A. DA3012550  Fulltext: [[ProQuest Dissertations & Theses]]</ref> Often referred to as the "Windy City", many people mistake that saying for the weather. It actually refers to the chatter of deal-making among Chicago politicians, the wind being talk. Chicago was the United States' bid city for the 2016 Olympics, which ultimately were awarded to [[Rio de Janeiro]].

The city was also rather notorious for several dirty elements in politics, including a quote attributed to [[Richard J. Daley]] called "Vote early, vote often", alluding to stuffing the ballot box to ensure a win in an election cycle, as well as a joke on how Chicago was the place where "people come back from the grave to vote", in reference to ghost voters, which is a variant of ballot box stuffing which included names of people who had in fact died before the election.

The city was also rather notorious for several dirty elements in politics, including a quote attributed to Richard J. Daley called "Vote early, vote often", alluding to stuffing the ballot box to ensure a win in an election cycle, as well as a joke on how Chicago was the place where "people come back from the grave to vote", in reference to ghost voters, which is a variant of ballot box stuffing which included names of people who had in fact died before the election.

==See also==

==See also==

====Crime, law and disaster ====

====Crime, law and disaster ====

* Adler, Jeffrey S.  ''First in Violence, Deepest in Dirt: Homicide in Chicago, 1875-1920.'' (2006). 357 pp.  [http://www.amazon.com/First-Violence-Deepest-Dirt-Homicide/dp/0674021495/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198610340&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]

* Adler, Jeffrey S.  ''First in Violence, Deepest in Dirt: Homicide in Chicago, 1875-1920.'' (2006). 357 pp.  [http://www.amazon.com/First-Violence-Deepest-Dirt-Homicide/dp/0674021495/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198610340&sr=8-4 excerpt and text search]

* Adler, Jeffrey S. "'We've Got a Right to Fight; We're Married': Domestic Homicide in Chicago, 1875-1920." ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'' 2003 34(1): 27-48. Issn: 0022-1953 Fulltext: [[Project Muse]]

* Adler, Jeffrey S. "'We've Got a Right to Fight; We're Married': Domestic Homicide in Chicago, 1875-1920." ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'' 2003 34(1): 27-48. Issn: 0022-1953 Fulltext: Project Muse

* Avrich, Paul. ''The Haymarket Tragedy'' (1984) [http://www.amazon.com/Haymarket-Tragedy-Paul-Avrich/dp/0691006008/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198669133&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Avrich, Paul. ''The Haymarket Tragedy'' (1984) [http://www.amazon.com/Haymarket-Tragedy-Paul-Avrich/dp/0691006008/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198669133&sr=8-1 excerpt and text search]

* Bales, Richard F.  ''The Great Chicago Fire and the Myth of Mrs. O'Leary's Cow.'' (2002). 338 pp.   

* Bales, Richard F.  ''The Great Chicago Fire and the Myth of Mrs. O'Leary's Cow.'' (2002). 338 pp.   

* Erdmans, Mary Patrice.  ''Opposite Poles: Immigrants and Ethnics in Polish Chicago, 1976-1990.'' (1998). 267 pp.   

* Erdmans, Mary Patrice.  ''Opposite Poles: Immigrants and Ethnics in Polish Chicago, 1976-1990.'' (1998). 267 pp.   

* Fuerst, J. S. and Hunt, D. Bradford, eds.  ''When Public Housing Was Paradise: Building Community in Chicago.'' (2003) 228 pp.   

* Fuerst, J. S. and Hunt, D. Bradford, eds.  ''When Public Housing Was Paradise: Building Community in Chicago.'' (2003) 228 pp.   

*  Green, Paul M., and and Melvin G. Holli. ''Chicago, World War II'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Chicago-World-War-Images-America/dp/0738532096/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198592033&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]

*  Green, Paul M., and Melvin G. Holli. ''Chicago, World War II'' (2003) [http://www.amazon.com/Chicago-World-War-Images-America/dp/0738532096/ref=sr_1_4?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1198592033&sr=1-4 excerpt and text search]

* Greene, Victor.  ''For God and Country: The Rise of Polish and Lithuanian Ethnic Consciousness in America, 1860-1910.'' (1975). 202 pp.   

* Greene, Victor.  ''For God and Country: The Rise of Polish and Lithuanian Ethnic Consciousness in America, 1860-1910.'' (1975). 202 pp.   

* Guglielmo, Thomas A.  ''White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890-1945.'' (2003). 296 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/104280928 online edition]

* Guglielmo, Thomas A.  ''White on Arrival: Italians, Race, Color, and Power in Chicago, 1890-1945.'' (2003). 296 pp. [http://www.questia.com/read/104280928 online edition]