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'''Sociology''' is a branch of Social Sciences concerned with the study of human behaviour, specifically in social relations, using the scientific method of observation. Sociology, with psychology, is at the crux of the long standing Nature vs. Nurture debate. Sociology represents nurture and psychology represents nature.
'''Sociology''' is a branch of Social Sciences concerned with the study of human behaviour, specifically in social relations, using the scientific method of
observation. Sociology, with psychology, is at the crux of the long standing Nature vs. Nurture debate. Sociology represents nurture and psychology
represents nature.
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==History==
==History==
The term sociology was coined by [Auguste Comte] in 1839. Comte is also the father of [positivism]. <ref> Pickering, M. (2007). Auguste Comte. In J. Scott (Ed.), ''Fifty key sociologists: the formative theorists'' (pp. 21-26). New York: Routledge.</ref> Comte's theory of positivism limits knowledge to the observable, and is crucial in approaching sociology as a science. The study of society dates back to Greek philosophers, however it was not distinguished as its own field of study until Comte.
The term sociology was coined by [[Auguste Comte]] in 1839. Comte is also the father of [positivism]. <ref> Pickering, M. (2007). Auguste Comte. In J. Scott
(Ed.), ''Fifty key sociologists: the formative theorists'' (pp. 21-26). New York: Routledge.</ref> Comte's theory of positivism limits knowledge to the
observable, and is crucial in approaching sociology as a science. The study of society dates back to Greek philosophers, however it was not distinguished as
its own field of study until Comte.
==Key Theories==
==Key Theories==
There are a number of formative theorists who laid the groundwork for sociology, who have had a great deal of influence in Sociology through the following key theories:
There are a number of formative theorists who laid the groundwork for sociology, who have had a great deal of influence in Sociology through the following
key theories:
===Conflict Theory===
===Conflict Theory===
Conflict theory strives to explain social facts in terms of different groups competing for control of resources, or advantages. This process occurs on macro levels, such as class groups, and tries to explain stability and change in terms of the conflict between these macro level structures. Two central premises to this theory are that privileged groups are working to maintain their privileges, while the disadvantaged are constantly trying to attain more. Karl Marx is regarded as the father of conflict theory, and the idea of human society. Communism is the modern day incarnation of Marx ideal human society. Central to the ideas of conflict theory are that by eliminating privilege, the overall welfare of the society can be increased. That is, a true equality amongst members of a society. Through class consciousness, Marx believed that the workers would eventually recognize they were being exploited, and put an end to privilege. <ref>Brym, R.J. (2001). Introducing sociology. In R.J. Brym (Ed.), New society:sociology for the 21st century (pp. 2-25). Toronto: Harcourt.</ref>
[[Conflict theory]] strives to explain social facts in terms of different groups competing for control of resources, or advantages. This process occurs on
macro levels, such as class groups, and tries to explain stability and change in terms of the conflict between these macro level structures. Two central
premises to this theory are that privileged groups are working to maintain their privileges, while the disadvantaged are constantly trying to attain more.
[[Karl Marx]] is regarded as the father of conflict theory, and the idea of human society. Communism is the modern day incarnation of Marx ideal human
society. Central to the ideas of conflict theory are that by eliminating privilege, the overall welfare of the society can be increased. That is, a true
equality amongst members of a society. Through class consciousness, Marx believed that the workers would eventually recognize they were being exploited, and
put an end to privilege. <ref>Brym, R.J. (2001). Introducing sociology. In R.J. Brym (Ed.), New society: sociology for the 21st century (pp. 2-25). Toronto:
Harcourt.</ref>
'''Key Figures:''' Karl Marx, Frederich Engels, Max Weber
'''Key Figures:''' Karl Marx, [[Frederich Engels]]
;Notable works include
;Notable works include
===Functionalism===
===Functionalism===
Functionalism is a theory which examines society through interdependent elements, using a somewhat biological approach. In essence, social institutions have a specific function for the welfare of the entire society, in much the same way that the body's organs have specific functions that contribute to the overall welfare of the body. Functionalists believe that it is stable social relations or structures that influence human behaviour; these structures arise from shared values, and can either contribute to, or detract from the social stability. Functionalists believe that restoring equilibrium and increasing social cohesion can solve most social problems. In the late 40s, Robert Merton made a significant contribution to functionalist thought with his theories of manifest and latent functions. That is, a social structure can have both intentional functions, and unintentional functions respectively. Merton also believed that social structures can have a varying impact on different groups.<ref>Brym, R.J. (2001). Introducing sociology. In R.J. Brym (Ed.), New society:sociology for the 21st century (pp. 2-25). Toronto: Harcourt.</ref><ref>Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. & Turner, B.S. (2000). The penguin dictionary of sociology (4th ed.). Toronto:Penguin.</ref><ref>Gomme, I.M. (2002). The shadow line: deviance and crime in Canada (3rd ed.). Toronto:Nelson.</ref>
Functionalism is a theory which examines society through interdependent elements, using a somewhat biological approach. In essence, social institutions have
a specific function for the welfare of the entire society, in much the same way that the body's organs have specific functions that contribute to the overal
welfare of the body. Functionalists believe that it is stable social relations or structures that influence human behaviour; these structures arise from
'''Key Figures:''' Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim, Talcott Parsons, Robert Merton
shared values, and can either contribute to, or detract from the social stability. Functionalists believe that restoring equibilrium and increasing social
cohesion can solve most social problems. In the late 40s, Robert Merton made a significant contribution to functionalist thought with his theories of
manifest and latent functions. That is, a social structure can have both intentional functions, and unintentional functions respectively. Merton also
believed that social structures can have a varying impact on different groups.<ref>Brym, R.J. (2001). Introducing sociology. In R.J. Brym (Ed.), New
society:sociology for the 21st century (pp. 2-25). Toronto: Harcourt.</ref><ref>Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. & Turner, B.S. (2000). The penguin dictionary of
sociology (4th ed.). Toronto:Penguin.</ref><ref>Gomme, I.M. (2002). The shadow line: deviance and crime in Canada (3rd ed.). Toronto:Nelson.</ref>
Example: The functionalist approach to deviant behaviour takes the position that a certain amount of deviance or crime is necessary in society. At the
correct balance, deviance has latent functions that contribute to the health of society. When the balance is disrupted, social cohesion deteriorates. More
specifically, latent functions of deviance include providing an example of unacceptable conduct to other members of society. Criminals and ''others''
demonstrate unacceptable conduct by incurring sanctions from other formal structures, such as the courts, or mental health institutions.
'''Key Figures:''' Auguste Comte, [[Emile Durkheim]], [[Talcott Parsons]], [[Robert Merton]]
;Notable works include
;Notable works include
===Symbolic Interactionism===
===Symbolic Interactionism===
Key Figures: George Herbert Mead
As one of the key theories in Sociology, symbolic interactionism concerns itself with social interatction in microlevel settings, unlike conflict theory and
functionalism. Symbolic interactionism assumes that person's social behaviour occurs only in the context of the subjective meanings he or she attach to his
or her social position. It is important to note however, that the social position of the individual is influenced by his or her own actions; one does not
simply ''react'' to one's position in society.
<ref>Brym, R.J. (2001). Introducing sociology. In R.J. Brym (Ed.), New society:sociology for the 21st century (pp. 2-25). Toronto:
Harcourt.</ref><ref>Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. & Turner, B.S. (2000). The penguin dictionary of sociology (4th ed.). Toronto:Penguin.</ref>
Example: Weber's work ''The Protestant Ethic'' is a prime example of symbolic interactionism. Weber looked at the roots of modern capitalism in Protestant
asceticism. Weber argues that the first capitalists were Calvanists, though not all Calvanists becamecapitalists. These Calvanists believed in working hard,
and not wasting any money on unnecessary material possessions was the way to gain eternal salvation in the Kingdom of Heaven. The actions taken by the
Calvanists who became capitalists cannot be separated from the definition they applied to their actions, otherwise meaning is lost. The idea is, that even a
good thing done for the wrong reasons can be wrong. Consider the difference between an ascetic Calvanist, and Ebeneezer Scrooge; both have essentially the
same idea, however one is more likely to reach eternal salvation.
'''Key Figures:''' George Herbert Mead
;Notable works include
:''Mind, Self, and Society'' by George Herbert Mead
:''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'' by Max Weber
===Feminist Theory===
===Feminist Theory===
Key Figures: Harriet Martineau
The science of sociology would not be complete without the feminist perspective. While feminism continues today to be a point of contention, it nevertheless
has an important contribution to the science. At the time when sociology was born, and throughout its early years, women were not regarded as full citizens
in the same way as men. The best evidence to support that position, is the role women played in the home and their limited participation outside the home.
Feminist theory focuses on "the system of male domination in society" (Brym, 2001:15). This theory maintains that the relative positions of men and women in
society is a social construct, which can and should be changed for the benefit of all members of society. Feminist theory examines structures on both a
macrolevel and microlevel setting. The theory holds that the inequalities are institutionalized, even in the field of sociology. The most notable figure is
Harriet Martineau, regarded as the first woman sociologist.
Example: Early theories on social inequality examined the paid work done by men, but ignored completely the unpaid work done by women in the home. To answer
the question of why unpaid labour in the home would be of sociological consequence, one must consider the remmuneration earned by professional house cleaning
services. It is undeniable in light of this evidence, that a spouse's (or parent's) work in the home, is of economic consequence, regardless of the sex of
the partner.<ref>Brym, R.J. (2001). Introducing sociology. In R.J. Brym (Ed.), New society:sociology for the 21st century (pp. 2-25). Toronto:
Harcourt.</ref><ref>Abercrombie, N., Hill, S. & Turner, B.S. (2000). The penguin dictionary of sociology (4th ed.). Toronto:Penguin.</ref>
'''Key Figures:''' Harriet Martineau, Charlotte Perkins Gilman
;Notable works include
:''Women and Economics: A Study of the Economic Relation Between Men and Women as a Factor in Social Evolution.'' by Charlotte Perkins Gilman
:''Illustrations of Political Economy'' by Harriet Martineau
==Top Ten Most Influential Books==
==Top Ten Most Influential Books==
Source: [http://www.isa-sociology.org/books/books10.htm Books of the Century]
Source: [http://www.isa-sociology.org/books/books10.htm Books of the Century]
==External Links==
==Professional Organizations==
===Professional Organizations===
* [http://www.asanet.org/ American Sociological Association]
* [http://www.asanet.org/ American Sociological Association]
* [http://www.csaa.ca Canadian Sociology and Anthropology Association]
* [http://www.csaa.ca Canadian Sociology and Anthropology Association]
* [http://www.isa-sociology.org International Sociological Association]
* [http://www.isa-sociology.org International Sociological Association]
===Resources===
* [http:// Project Gutenburg]
==References==
==References==
NOTES:
NOTES:
APA Style Referencing Please
Please continue the use of APA style referencing for consistency throught this document.
Author. A.A. (Date).Title of book. Place of publication: Publisher
Author, A.A. (Date). Title of essay/article/chapter. In E. Editor (Ed.), Title of book (pp. xx-xx). Place of publication: Publisher.
Sources/Bias: This document has been compiled through the use of scholarly resources, i.e. published books and texts. It has been written with a neutral
bias, including the use of gender neutrality. This is due to the nature of sociology as a science (and a liberal art). The intent is to report only facts,
and cite examples from published sources, preferably peer reviewed resources. Please avoid personal opinions, and personal web pages (except personal web
pages belonging to recognized authorities, located on university/college servers).
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[[Category:Sociology]]
[[Category:Sociology]]