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'''Gunpowder''' is a major invention that has been essential for warfare for five or more centuries. It is a chemical mixture which burns extremely rapidly, and was used as a propellant in early [[small arms]] and [[cannon]]s. Experiments to improve the effectiveness and safety were some of the first true [[chemistry]].  It is a mixture of [[charcoal]], [[sulfur]], and [[saltpeter]] (potassium nitrate), ground together.  The optimal mixture is 75% saltpeter, 11.5% sulfur, and 13.5% charcoal. Gunpowder is still used today in weapons, [[fireworks]], and [[special effects]].

'''Gunpowder''' is a major invention that has been essential for warfare for five or more centuries. It is a chemical mixture which burns extremely rapidly, and was used as a propellant in early [[small arms]] and [[cannon]]s. Experiments to improve the effectiveness and safety were some of the first true [[chemistry]].  It is a mixture of [[charcoal]], [[sulfur]], and [[saltpeter]] (potassium nitrate), ground together.  The optimal mixture is 75% saltpeter, 11.5% sulfur, and 13.5% charcoal. Gunpowder is still used today in weapons, [[fireworks]], and [[special effects]].

Gunpowder is a low explosive because it burns rapidly without outside air. It gives off large volumes of gas.  In a confined space (as the barrel of a gun) the gases build up enough pressure to push a bullet or shell out the muzzle at high velocity.  In firecrackers it is completely enclosed and the gases will cause a small explosion, but gunpowder does not detonate like high explosives; the first high explosives were TNT and dynamite, invented in the 1860s.

Gunpowder is a low explosive because it burns rapidly without outside air, and gives off large volumes of gas.  In a confined space (as the barrel of a gun) the gases build up enough pressure to push a bullet or shell out the muzzle at high velocity.  In firecrackers it is completely enclosed and the gases will cause a small explosion, but gunpowder does not detonate like high explosives; the first high explosives were TNT and dynamite, invented in the 1860s.

==History==

==History==

==Mining==

==Mining==

In terms of civilian uses, the technique of gunpowder blasting for mining was first demonstrated by Caspar Weindel at Schemnitz, Lower Hungary in 1627.  A hole was drilled behind a rock and a fuze ignited the gunpowder, which broke up the rock. The technique spread across western Europe by the 1660s, greatly facilitating mining operations.  In mining gunpowder was replaced by dynamite, invented in the late 1860s by Swedish chemist [[Alfred Nobel]], who endowed the Nobel prizes.

In terms of civilian uses, the technique of gunpowder blasting for mining was first demonstrated by Caspar Weindel at Schemnitz, Lower Hungary in 1627.  A hole was drilled behind a rock and a fuse ignited the gunpowder, which broke up the rock. The technique spread across western Europe by the 1660s, greatly facilitating mining operations.  Dynamite later replaced gunpowder for this purpose, shortly after it was invented in the late 1860s by Swedish chemist [[Alfred Nobel]], who endowed the Nobel prizes.

==Military Uses==

==Military Uses==

Gunpowder was used as a propellant for [[rocket]]s, and to propel shot in cannons and naval guns.  During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, Chinese gunpowder technology spread to the whole of Southeast Asia via both the overland and maritime routes, long before the arrival of European firearms. The impact of Chinese firearms revolutionized warfare in India and neighboring areas.  

Gunpowder was used as a propellant for [[rocket]]s, and to propel shot in cannons and naval guns.  During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, Chinese gunpowder technology spread to the whole of Southeast Asia via both the overland and maritime routes, long before the arrival of European firearms. The impact of Chinese firearms revolutionized warfare in India and neighboring areas.  

Sieges were the primary form of warfare in the Middle Ages in Europe.  During the period 1346-1500 cannon complemented catpults in siege warfare; only after 1480 did technical improvements in gunpowder and metallurgy render catapults obsolete. Cannons shooting lead, iron or stone projectiles could knock down a castle's high walls, hence the castle had to be aqbandoned.  New fortifications were invented, such as the star shape, such that each wall sloped away from the attacker, reducing the impact of the cannon. One of the main innovators was Italian architect Francesco Di Giorgio, who woked in southern Italy.<ref>Michael S. A. Dechert, "The Military Architecture of Francesco Di Giorgio in Southern Italy." ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 1990 49(2): 161-180. Issn: 0037-9808 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0037-9808(199006)49%3A2%3C161%3ATMAOFD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3 in Jstor]</ref>

Sieges were the primary form of warfare in the Middle Ages in Europe.  During the period 1346-1500 cannon complemented catapults in siege warfare; only after 1480 did technical improvements in gunpowder and metallurgy render catapults obsolete. Cannons shooting lead, iron or stone projectiles could knock down a castle's high walls, hence the castle had to be abandoned.  New fortifications were invented, such as the star shape, such that each wall sloped away from the attacker, reducing the impact of the cannon. One of the main innovators was Italian architect Francesco Di Giorgio, who woked in southern Italy.<ref>Michael S. A. Dechert, "The Military Architecture of Francesco Di Giorgio in Southern Italy." ''Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians'' 1990 49(2): 161-180. Issn: 0037-9808 Fulltext: [http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0037-9808(199006)49%3A2%3C161%3ATMAOFD%3E2.0.CO%3B2-3 in Jstor]</ref>

==Naval warfare==

==Naval warfare==

Few technological developments in the history of warfare have been as portentous as the appearance around the turn of the 16th century of effective heavy gunpowder ordnance on shipboard, which began a new era in sea warfare. Employed on Mediterranean war galleys and Portuguese caravels, the weapons marked the solution of a series of daunting technological problems, beginning with the appearance of gunpowder in Europe about 1300. Unlike developments on land, change was at first gradual, but shortly after 1400 the pace of development sharply accelerated to culminate in what may legitimately be termed a revolution in firepower at sea.<ref>Guilmartin, "The Earliest Shipboard Gunpowder Ordnanace" (2007)</ref>

Few technological developments in the history of warfare have been as portentous as the appearance around the turn of the 16th century of effective heavy gunpowder ordnance on shipboard, which began a new era in sea warfare. Employed on Mediterranean war galleys and Portuguese caravels, the weapons marked the solution of a series of daunting technological problems, beginning with the appearance of gunpowder in Europe about 1300. Unlike developments on land, change was at first gradual, but shortly after 1400 the pace of development sharply accelerated to culminate in what may legitimately be termed a revolution in firepower at sea.<ref>Guilmartin, "The Earliest Shipboard Gunpowder Ordinance" (2007)</ref>

==Smokeless powder==

==Smokeless powder==

Black powder has gradually been superseded in common use by other propellants which provide higher energy density, lack of smoke, or other desirable properties. In the mid-19th century chemists realized that black-powder smoke wasted fuel, reducing muzzle velocity, while a smokeless powder converted all its fuel, allowing for increased velocity of projectiles. Increased velocity was necessary for rapid-fire shells and in battle against ironclad vessels. In 1884, Frenchman Paul Vieille invented smokeless gunpowder.

Black powder has gradually been superseded in common use by other propellants which provide higher energy density, lack of smoke, or other desirable properties. In the mid-19th century chemists realized that black-powder smoke wasted fuel, reducing muzzle velocity, while a smokeless powder converted all its fuel, allowing for increased velocity of projectiles. Increased velocity was necessary for rapid-fire shells and in battle against ironclad vessels. In 1884, Frenchman Paul Vieille invented smokeless gunpowder.