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The '''Somali Republic''' is a [[Muslim]] country that is a combination of two former European colonies known as [[British]] Somaliland and Italian Somaliland. Somalia is a [[Failed State]], [[Somaliland]] (Northern part) declared independence in 1991 and as ruled itself ever sense but other nations do NOT recognize it; in 2026 one nation finally recognized it<ref>https://allisraelnews.com/somaliland-delegation-visits-israel-after-historic-recognition-eyes-water-tech-partnership</ref>. Most of Somalia is ruled by warlords not the government.<br> Somalia has been Muslim since A.D. 900 and today is considered one of the bases for pirates and for the [[terrorist]] group [[al-Qaeda]].  Roughly the size of [[New Jersey]] in area and population, Somalia is located in the Horn of Africa, its coastline on the [[Indian Ocean]] bordering [[Djibouti]] (the former French Somaliland), [[Ethiopia]] and [[Kenya]].  The capital city is [[Mogadishu]], which has long been one of the most dangerous cities in the world.

The '''Somali Republic''' is a [[Muslim]] country that is a combination of two former European colonies known as [[British]] Somaliland and Italian Somaliland. Somalia is a [[Failed State]], [[Somaliland]] (Northern part) declared independence in 1991 and as ruled itself ever sense but other nations do NOT recognize it; in 2026 one nation finally recognized it.<ref>https://allisraelnews.com/somaliland-delegation-visits-israel-after-historic-recognition-eyes-water-tech-partnership</ref> Most of Somalia is ruled by warlords not the government.<br> Somalia has been Muslim since A.D. 900 and today is considered one of the bases for pirates and for the [[terrorist]] group [[al-Qaeda]].  Roughly the size of [[New Jersey]] in area and population, Somalia is located in the Horn of Africa, its coastline on the [[Indian Ocean]] bordering [[Djibouti]] (the former French Somaliland), [[Ethiopia]] and [[Kenya]].  The capital city is [[Mogadishu]], which has long been one of the most dangerous cities in the world.

==Geography==

==Geography==

Somalia is located on the east coast of Africa on and north of the Equator and, with Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Kenya, is often referred to as the Horn of Africa. It comprises Italy's former Trust Territory of Somalia and the former British Protectorate of Somaliland. [[Somaliland]] has been self-governing since 1991 but still seeking recognition as an independent state. In 2026 one nation finally recognized it<ref>https://allisraelnews.com/somaliland-delegation-visits-israel-after-historic-recognition-eyes-water-tech-partnership</ref>. The coastline extends 2,720 kilometers (1,700&nbsp;mi.) if you include [[Somaliland]].  

Somalia is located on the east coast of Africa on and north of the Equator and, with Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, and Kenya, is often referred to as the Horn of Africa. It comprises Italy's former Trust Territory of Somalia and the former British Protectorate of Somaliland. [[Somaliland]] has been self-governing since 1991 but still seeking recognition as an independent state. In 2026 one nation finally recognized it.<ref>https://allisraelnews.com/somaliland-delegation-visits-israel-after-historic-recognition-eyes-water-tech-partnership</ref> The coastline extends 2,720 kilometers (1,700&nbsp;mi.) if you include [[Somaliland]].  

The northern part of the country is hilly, and in many places the altitude ranges between 900 and 2,100 meters (3,000&nbsp;ft.-7,000&nbsp;ft.) above sea level. The central and southern areas are flat, with an average altitude of less than 180 meters (600&nbsp;ft.). The Juba and the Shabelle Rivers rise in Ethiopia and flow south across the country toward the Indian Ocean. The Shabelle, however, does not reach the sea.  

The northern part of the country is hilly, and in many places the altitude ranges between 900 and 2,100 meters (3,000&nbsp;ft.-7,000&nbsp;ft.) above sea level. The central and southern areas are flat, with an average altitude of less than 180 meters (600&nbsp;ft.). The Juba and the Shabelle Rivers rise in Ethiopia and flow south across the country toward the Indian Ocean. The Shabelle, however, does not reach the sea.  

Two regional administrations exist in northern Somalia—the self-declared "Republic of Somaliland" in the northwest and the semi-autonomous region of Puntland in the northeast. In Somaliland, which is made up of the former British protectorate, Dahir Riyale Kahin was elected President in presidential elections deemed free and fair by international observers in May 2003. The area of Puntland declared itself autonomous (although not independent) in 1998 with its capital at Garowe. General Mohamed Adde Muse was elected President by the Puntland parliament in January 2005. Puntland declared it would remain autonomous until a federated Somalia state was established.

Two regional administrations exist in northern Somalia—the self-declared "Republic of Somaliland" in the northwest and the semi-autonomous region of Puntland in the northeast. In Somaliland, which is made up of the former British protectorate, Dahir Riyale Kahin was elected President in presidential elections deemed free and fair by international observers in May 2003. The area of Puntland declared itself autonomous (although not independent) in 1998 with its capital at Garowe. General Mohamed Adde Muse was elected President by the Puntland parliament in January 2005. Puntland declared it would remain autonomous until a federated Somalia state was established.

Puntland is the tip of the horn of the [[Horn of Africa]]. Until March of 2024 Puntland was part of Somalia, but then it refused to recognize the Somali government. Unlike Somaliland, to its west, Puntland has so far not sought international recognition as an independent state. Somaliland’s efforts in that regard have been signally unsuccessful—it is only recognized by the [[State of Israel]].  

Puntland is the tip of the horn of the [[Horn of Africa]]. Until March 2024 Puntland was part of Somalia, but then it refused to recognize the Somali government. Unlike Somaliland, to its west, Puntland has so far not sought international recognition as an independent state. Somaliland's efforts in that regard have been signally unsuccessful—it is only recognized by the [[State of Israel]].  

As of August 2026, after being driven out of the [[Persian Gulf]], the [[United States]] began expanding its base at Bosaso.<ref>https://responsiblestatecraft.org/us-military-base-somalia/</ref>

As of August 2026, after being driven out of the [[Persian Gulf]], the [[United States]] began expanding its base at Bosaso.<ref>https://responsiblestatecraft.org/us-military-base-somalia/</ref>

Barre even glorifying the 'mad mullah' setting up a statue for him.

Barre even glorifying the 'mad mullah' setting up a statue for him.

In the 1980s, he shifted Somalia's alignment to the West following a territorial conflict with Ethiopia over the disputed Somali-populated region of the Ogaden from 1977–78, which was supported by the Soviet Union.

In the 1980s, he shifted Somalia's alignment to the West following a territorial conflict with Ethiopia over the disputed Somali-populated region of the Ogaden from 1977 to 1978, which was supported by the Soviet Union.

US cut links to Somalia upon hearing atrocities.

US cut links to Somalia upon hearing atrocities.

The central government also sought ties with many Arab countries, and continued to receive financial and military support from several Arab countries prior to its collapse in 1991.  

The central government also sought ties with many Arab countries, and continued to receive financial and military support from several Arab countries prior to its collapse in 1991.  

In 1978, emboldened by Soviet support, Barre launched an invasion of the Ogaden region in Ethiopia, hoping to expand Somali influence. The campaign backfired disastrously. Ethiopia, now also a Marxist ally of the USSR and aided heavily by Cuban troops, repelled the Somali offensive and retaliated by devastating villages in the Ogaden region. As a result, roughly one million civilians—mostly women and children—were forced to flee into Somalia, creating a refugee crisis on top of an already strained nation.

In 1978, emboldened by Soviet support, Barre launched an invasion of the Ogaden region in Ethiopia, hoping to expand Somali influence. The campaign backfired disastrously. Ethiopia, now also a Marxist ally of the USSR and aided heavily by Cuban troops, repelled the Somali offensive and retaliated by devastating villages in the Ogaden region. As a result, roughly one million civilians—mostly women and children—were forced to flee into Somalia, creating a refugee crisis on top of an already strained nation.

Defeated abroad and weakened at home, Barre responded to growing internal opposition—especially from the Isaaq clan in the north—with brutal force. In the late 1980s, his regime launched a full-scale military assault on northern cities such as Hargeisa, Berbera, and Bur’o. Prior to the bombings, Isaaq civilians were forcibly marched through the desert toward Ethiopia’s border. Barre's racist [[Isaaq genocide]] claimed the lives of 200,000. Entire cities were depopulated and reduced to rubble. By 1990, over 360,000 Somali refugees had crossed into Ethiopia. The Washington Post estimated that 50,000 civilians—most of them from the Isaaq clan—were killed. (It is believed, Colonel Nur Omar Mohamed, [[Ilhan Omar]]’s father, played a direct or enabling role in the genocide).

Defeated abroad and weakened at home, Barre responded to growing internal opposition—especially from the Isaaq clan in the north—with brutal force. In the late 1980s, his regime launched a full-scale military assault on northern cities such as Hargeisa, Berbera, and Bur’o. Prior to the bombings, Isaaq civilians were forcibly marched through the desert toward Ethiopia's border. Barre's racist [[Isaaq genocide]] claimed the lives of 200,000. Entire cities were depopulated and reduced to rubble. By 1990, over 360,000 Somali refugees had crossed into Ethiopia. The Washington Post estimated that 50,000 civilians—most of them from the Isaaq clan—were killed. (It is believed, Colonel Nur Omar Mohamed, [[Ilhan Omar]]’s father, played a direct or enabling role in the genocide).

Despite signing a peace agreement with Ethiopia in 1988, Barre's government remained unstable. His heavy-handed socialist policies, [[militarism]], and reliance on foreign communist powers had left the country economically crippled and politically fractured.

Despite signing a peace agreement with Ethiopia in 1988, Barre's government remained unstable. His heavy-handed socialist policies, [[militarism]], and reliance on foreign communist powers had left the country economically crippled and politically fractured.

Meanwhile, rapid progress toward self-government was being made in British Somaliland. Elections for the Legislative Assembly were held in February 1960, and one of the first acts of the new legislature was to request that the United Kingdom grant the area independence so that it could be united with Italian Somaliland when the latter became independent. The protectorate became independent on June 26, 1960; five days later, on July 1, it joined Italian Somaliland to form the Somali Republic.  

Meanwhile, rapid progress toward self-government was being made in British Somaliland. Elections for the Legislative Assembly were held in February 1960, and one of the first acts of the new legislature was to request that the United Kingdom grant the area independence so that it could be united with Italian Somaliland when the latter became independent. The protectorate became independent on June 26, 1960; five days later, on July 1, it joined Italian Somaliland to form the Somali Republic.  

In June 1961, Somalia adopted its first national constitution in a countrywide referendum, which provided for a democratic state with a parliamentary form of government based on European models. During the early post-independence period, political parties were a fluid concept, with one-person political parties forming before an election, only to defect to the winning party following the election. A constitutional conference in Mogadishu in April 1960, which made the system of government in the southern Somali trust territory the basis for the future government structure of the Somali Republic, resulted in the concentration of political power in the former Italian Somalia capital of Mogadishu and a southern-dominated central government, with most key government positions occupied by southern Somalis, producing increased disenchantment with the union in the former British-controlled north. Pan-Somali nationalism, with the goal of uniting the Somali-populated regions of French Somaliland (Djibouti), Kenya and Ethiopia into a Greater Somalia, remained the driving political ideology in the initial post-independence period. Under the leadership of Mohamed Ibrahim Egal (prime minister from 1967 to 1969), however, Somalia renounced its claims to the Somali-populated regions of Ethiopia and Kenya, greatly improving its relations with both countries. Egal attempted a similar approach with Ethiopia, but the move towards reconciliation with Ethiopia, which had been a traditional enemy of Somalia since the 16th century, made many Somalis furious, including the army. Egal's reconciliation effort toward Ethiopia is argued to be one of the principal factors that provoked a bloodless coup on October 21, 1969 and subsequent installation of Maj. Gen. Mohamed Siad Barre as president, bringing an abrupt end to the process of party-based constitutional democracy in Somalia.  

In June 1961, Somalia adopted its first national constitution in a countrywide referendum, which provided for a democratic state with a parliamentary form of government based on European models. During the early post-independence period, political parties were a fluid concept, with one-person political parties forming before an election, only to defect to the winning party following the election. A constitutional conference in Mogadishu in April 1960, which made the system of government in the southern Somali trust territory the basis for the future government structure of the Somali Republic, resulted in the concentration of political power in the former Italian Somalia capital of Mogadishu and a southern-dominated central government, with most key government positions occupied by southern Somalis, producing increased disenchantment with the union in the former British-controlled north. Pan-Somali nationalism, with the goal of uniting the Somali-populated regions of French Somaliland (Djibouti), Kenya and Ethiopia into a Greater Somalia, remained the driving political ideology in the initial post-independence period. Under the leadership of Mohamed Ibrahim Egal (prime minister from 1967 to 1969), however, Somalia renounced its claims to the Somali-populated regions of Ethiopia and Kenya, greatly improving its relations with both countries. Egal attempted a similar approach with Ethiopia, but the move towards reconciliation with Ethiopia, which had been a traditional enemy of Somalia since the 16th century, made many Somalis furious, including the army. Egal's reconciliation effort toward Ethiopia is argued to be one of the principal factors that provoked a bloodless coup on October 21, 1969, and subsequent installation of Maj. Gen. Mohamed Siad Barre as president, bringing an abrupt end to the process of party-based constitutional democracy in Somalia.  

Following the coup, executive and legislative power was vested in the 20-member Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC), headed by Barre. The SRC pursued a course of "scientific socialism" that reflected both ideological and economic dependence on the Soviet Union. The government instituted a national security service, centralized control over information, and initiated a number of grassroots development projects. Barre reduced political freedoms and used military force to seize and redistribute rich farmlands in the interriverine areas of southern Somalia, relying on the use of force and terror against the Somali population to consolidate his political power base.  

Following the coup, executive and legislative power was vested in the 20-member Supreme Revolutionary Council (SRC), headed by Barre. The SRC pursued a course of "scientific socialism" that reflected both ideological and economic dependence on the Soviet Union. The government instituted a national security service, centralized control over information, and initiated a number of grassroots development projects. Barre reduced political freedoms and used military force to seize and redistribute rich farmlands in the interriverine areas of southern Somalia, relying on the use of force and terror against the Somali population to consolidate his political power base.  

Following the 1977-1978 Ogaden war, desperate to find a strong external alliance to replace the Soviet Union, Somalia abandoned its Socialist ideology and turned to the West for international support, military equipment, and economic aid. In 1978, the United States reopened the U.S. Agency for International Development mission in Somalia. Two years later, an agreement was concluded that gave U.S. forces access to military facilities at the port of Berbera in northwestern Somalia. In the summer of 1982, Ethiopian forces invaded Somalia along the central border, and the United States provided two emergency airlifts to help Somalia defend its territorial integrity. From 1982 to 1988, the United States viewed Somalia as a partner in defense in the context of the Cold War. Somali officers of the National Armed Forces were trained in U.S. military schools in civilian as well as military subjects.  

Following the 1977-1978 Ogaden war, desperate to find a strong external alliance to replace the Soviet Union, Somalia abandoned its Socialist ideology and turned to the West for international support, military equipment, and economic aid. In 1978, the United States reopened the U.S. Agency for International Development mission in Somalia. Two years later, an agreement was concluded that gave U.S. forces access to military facilities at the port of Berbera in northwestern Somalia. In the summer of 1982, Ethiopian forces invaded Somalia along the central border, and the United States provided two emergency airlifts to help Somalia defend its territorial integrity. From 1982 to 1988, the United States viewed Somalia as a partner in defense in the context of the Cold War. Somali officers of the National Armed Forces were trained in U.S. military schools in civilian as well as military subjects.  

Following the Ogaden war, the Barre regime violently suppressed opposition movements and ethnic groups, particularly the Isaaq clan in the northern region, using the military and elite security forces to quash any hint of rebellion. By the 1980s, an all-out civil war developed in Somalia. Opposition groups began to form following the end of the Ogaden war, beginning in 1979 with a group of dissatisfied army officers known as the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF). In 1981, as a result of increased northern discontent with the Barre regime, the Somali National Movement (SNM), composed mainly of the Isaaq clan, was formed in Hargeisa with the stated goal of overthrowing of the Barre regime. In January 1989, the United Somali Congress (USC), an opposition group of Somalis from the Hawiye clan, was formed as a political movement in Rome. A military wing of the USC was formed in Ethiopia in late 1989 under the leadership of Mohamed Farah "Aideed," a former political prisoner imprisoned by Barre from 1969-75. Aideed also formed alliances with other opposition groups, including the SNM and the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), an Ogadeen sub-clan force under Colonel Ahmed Omar Jess in the Bakool and Bay regions of Southern Somalia. In 1988, at the President's order, aircraft from the Somali National Air Force bombed the city of Hargeisa in northwestern Somalia, the former capital of British Somaliland, killing nearly 10,000 civilians and insurgents. The warfare in the northwest sped up the decay already evident elsewhere in the republic. Economic crisis, brought on by the cost of anti-insurgency activities, caused further hardship as Siad Barre and his cronies looted the national treasury.  

Following the Ogaden war, the Barre regime violently suppressed opposition movements and ethnic groups, particularly the Isaaq clan in the northern region, using the military and elite security forces to quash any hint of rebellion. By the 1980s, an all-out civil war developed in Somalia. Opposition groups began to form following the end of the Ogaden war, beginning in 1979 with a group of dissatisfied army officers known as the Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF). In 1981, as a result of increased northern discontent with the Barre regime, the Somali National Movement (SNM), composed mainly of the Isaaq clan, was formed in Hargeisa with the stated goal of overthrowing of the Barre regime. In January 1989, the United Somali Congress (USC), an opposition group of Somalis from the Hawiye clan, was formed as a political movement in Rome. A military wing of the USC was formed in Ethiopia in late 1989 under the leadership of Mohamed Farah "Aideed," a former political prisoner imprisoned by Barre from 1969 to 1975. Aideed also formed alliances with other opposition groups, including the SNM and the Somali Patriotic Movement (SPM), an Ogadeen sub-clan force under Colonel Ahmed Omar Jess in the Bakool and Bay regions of Southern Somalia. In 1988, at the President's order, aircraft from the Somali National Air Force bombed the city of Hargeisa in northwestern Somalia, the former capital of British Somaliland, killing nearly 10,000 civilians and insurgents. The warfare in the northwest sped up the decay already evident elsewhere in the republic. Economic crisis, brought on by the cost of anti-insurgency activities, caused further hardship as Siad Barre and his cronies looted the national treasury.  

[[File:Somalia.jpg|thumb|Non-[[intervention]]ist poster about U.S. operation in Somalia.]]

[[File:Somalia.jpg|thumb|Non-[[intervention]]ist poster about U.S. operation in Somalia.]]

Following the collapse of the Barre regime in 1991, various groupings of Somali factions sought to control the national territory (or portions thereof) and fought small wars with one another. Approximately 14 national reconciliation conferences were convened over the succeeding decade. Efforts at mediation of the Somali internal dispute were also undertaken by many regional states. In the mid-1990s, Ethiopia played host to several Somali peace conferences and initiated talks at the Ethiopian city of Sodere, which led to some degree of agreement between competing factions. The Governments of Egypt, Yemen, Kenya, and Italy also have attempted to bring the Somali factions together. In 1997, the Organization of African Unity and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) gave Ethiopia the mandate to pursue Somali reconciliation. In 2000, Djibouti hosted a major reconciliation conference (the 13th such effort), which in August resulted in creation of the Transitional National Government (TNG), whose 3-year mandate expired in August 2003. The absence of a central government in Somalia also allowed outside forces to become more influential by supporting various groups and persons in Somalia, particularly Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Egypt, Yemen, and Libya, all of which have supported various Somali factions and transitional governments.

Following the collapse of the Barre regime in 1991, various groupings of Somali factions sought to control the national territory (or portions thereof) and fought small wars with one another. Approximately 14 national reconciliation conferences were convened over the succeeding decade. Efforts at mediation of the Somali internal dispute were also undertaken by many regional states. In the mid-1990s, Ethiopia played host to several Somali peace conferences and initiated talks at the Ethiopian city of Sodere, which led to some degree of agreement between competing factions. The Governments of Egypt, Yemen, Kenya, and Italy also have attempted to bring the Somali factions together. In 1997, the Organization of African Unity and the Intergovernmental Authority on Development (IGAD) gave Ethiopia the mandate to pursue Somali reconciliation. In 2000, Djibouti hosted a major reconciliation conference (the 13th such effort), which in August resulted in creation of the Transitional National Government (TNG), whose 3-year mandate expired in August 2003. The absence of a central government in Somalia also allowed outside forces to become more influential by supporting various groups and persons in Somalia, particularly Djibouti, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Egypt, Yemen, and Libya, all of which have supported various Somali factions and transitional governments.

== External links ==

== External links ==