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The Republican Party had a difficult time choosing its nominee for president.  There was an historic stalemate and deadlock during the Republican National Convention when the delegates attempted to make a selection.  Former President Ulysses S. Grant wanted to become president again, despite having served two terms.  His main rival was a powerful Republican Senator from Maine, James Blaine.  A third candidate, John Sherman of Ohio, also ran.  None was able to obtain a majority of the delegates despite dozens of ballots (mini-elections) cast by the delegates.  James Garfield went to the convention without any desire to be considered for president, and sought to support his fellow Ohioan John Sherman.

The Republican Party had a difficult time choosing its nominee for president.  There was an historic stalemate and deadlock during the Republican National Convention when the delegates attempted to make a selection.  Former President Ulysses S. Grant wanted to become president again, despite having served two terms.  His main rival was a powerful Republican Senator from Maine, James Blaine.  A third candidate, John Sherman of Ohio, also ran.  None was able to obtain a majority of the delegates despite dozens of ballots (mini-elections) cast by the delegates.  James Garfield went to the convention without any desire to be considered for president, and sought to support his fellow Ohioan John Sherman.

The big issue in 1880 was the "spoils system," which was an important part of the political "machines" common at the time.  The view of many politicians, from President Andrew Jackson to President Ulysses S. Grant, was that the victor in the election should be able to "clean house" and install his supporters in the new Administration.  Under the "spoils system" or "patronage system," the winner of an election gets to hand out government jobs to his supporters.  "To the victors go the spoils," is the famous saying for this.   

The big issue in 1880 was the "spoils system," which was an important part of the political "machines" common at the time.  The view of many politicians, from President Andrew Jackson to President Ulysses S. Grant, was that the victor in an election should be able to "clean house" and install his supporters in the new Administration.  Under the "spoils system" or "patronage system," the winner of an election gets to hand out government jobs to his supporters.  "To the victors go the spoils," is the famous saying for this.   

The "Stalwarts" in the Republican Party favored the spoils system, which insured that holdovers who disagreed with the winner would be fired and everyone in the new administration would agree with the new leader.  These Stalwarts included former Radical Republicans.  Opposed to the Stalwarts were moderates like Blaine and Garfield, who wanted a civil service system where a government employee would keep his job even after a new leader is elected.  They sought so-called "reform" of the spoils system to stop the corruption that a spoils system might lead to.

The "Stalwarts" in the Republican Party favored the spoils system, which insured that holdovers who disagreed with the winner would be fired and everyone in the new Administration would agree with the new leader.  These Stalwarts included former Radical Republicans.  Opposed to the Stalwarts were moderates like Blaine and Garfield, who wanted a civil service system where a government employee would keep his job even after a new leader is elected.  They sought so-called "reform" of the spoils system to stop the corruption that a spoils system might lead to.

After many "ballots" (mini-elections) among the delegates at the Republican National Convention, Blaine realized he could not win.  He and Sherman then withdrew their candidacies and threw their support behind a "dark horse" candidate, James Garfield.  So Garfield was finally elected (nominated) on the 36th ballot!  The delegates had met for days in a hot summer convention center in Chicago, without air conditioning, and debated and voted 36 times before nominating James Garfield, who was a former Union general and a current Republican congressman.

After many "ballots" (mini-elections) among the delegates at the 1880 Republican National Convention, Blaine realized he could not win.  He and Sherman then withdrew their candidacies and threw their support behind a "dark horse" candidate, James Garfield.  At first Garfield refused to be a candidate, but delegates elected (nominated) him anyway, on the 36th ballot!  The delegates had met for days in a hot summer convention center in Chicago, without air conditioning, and debated and voted 36 times before nominating James Garfield, who was a former Union general and a current Republican congressman.

Stalwarts like a powerful Republican Party Senator from New York, Roscoe Conkling, supported the "spoils system" and opposed Garfield and Blaine over it.  To appease the Stalwarts and try to earn their support, Garfield picked a Stalwart, Chester Arthur, as his running mate (Vice President).   

But Stalwarts, like a powerful Republican Party Senator from New York, Roscoe Conkling, supported the "spoils system" and opposed Garfield and Blaine over it.  To appease the Stalwarts and try to earn their support, Garfield picked a Stalwart, Chester Arthur, as his running mate (Vice President).   

But Garfield did not compromise after he was sworn into office.  He appointed an anti-Stalwart and arch-rival of Senator Conkling to run the New York Customs House, which was a key position that Conkling had expected to fill based on patronage.  Garfield insulted Conkling in order to establish that the president had control over these positions based on merit, rather than local senators based on patronage.   

Garfield, however, did not compromise after he was sworn into office.  He appointed an anti-Stalwart and arch-rival of Senator Conkling to run the New York Customs House, which was a key position that Conkling had expected to fill based on patronage.  Garfield insulted Conkling in order to establish that the president had control over these positions based on merit, rather than local senators based on patronage.   

Conkling contested this nomination and tried to block it in the U.S. Senate.  Conkling even arranged for the Senate to confirm all of Garfield's uncontested nominations except this one; Garfield responded by withdrawing all those other nominations except the one that Conkling opposed!  That forced the other senators to choose between Conkling and all the other nominees, who were friends of other senators.  Conkling, having been checkmated, resigned in protest in the expectation that he would be reappointed by the New York legislature to his position.  Fed up, however, the New York legislature refused to reappoint him (in those days U.S. Senators were picked by the legislatures rather than elected by the people), and Conkling was gone from the Senate.  The issue had thereby been resolved in Garfield's favor and against the Stalwarts.<ref>http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/jg20.html</ref>

Conkling contested this nomination and tried to block it in the U.S. Senate.  Conkling even arranged for the Senate to confirm all of Garfield's uncontested nominations except this one; Garfield responded by withdrawing all those other nominations except the one that Conkling opposed!  That forced the other senators to choose between Conkling and all the other nominees, who were friends of other senators.  Conkling, having been checkmated, resigned in protest in the expectation that he would be reappointed by the New York legislature to his position.  Fed up, however, the New York legislature refused to reappoint him (in those days U.S. Senators were picked by the legislatures rather than elected by the people), and Conkling was gone from the Senate.  The issue had thereby been resolved in Garfield's favor and against the Stalwarts.<ref>http://www.whitehouse.gov/history/presidents/jg20.html</ref>

But then tragedy struck Garfield.  On July 2, 1881, in a railroad station in Washington, D.C., an embittered attorney, who had unsuccessfully sought a consular post, shot President Garfield.  Garfield then lived for several weeks as experts from around the country examined his wound, and tried to get the bullet out.  Garfield even asked Alexander Graham Bell to develop a device (an induction-balance electrical gadget) to find the bullet.  Nothing worked, and all the doctors who probed Garfield's wound had the effect of infecting him.  This was before doctors took better care to sterilize instruments and wash their hands to remove all germs.

But then tragedy struck Garfield.  On July 2, 1881, in a railroad station in Washington, D.C., an embittered attorney, who had unsuccessfully sought a consular post, shot President Garfield.  Garfield then lived for several weeks as experts from around the country examined his wound, and tried to get the bullet out.  Garfield even asked Alexander Graham Bell to develop a device (an induction-balance electrical gadget) to find the bullet.  Nothing worked, and all the doctors who probed Garfield's wound had the effect of infecting him.  This was before doctors took better care to sterilize instruments and wash their hands to kill all germs.

Garfield was removed to the "Jersey Shore" (ocean-front property along the coast of New Jersey) to recuperate.  This helped at first, but ultimately an infection in the wound killed him on September 19, 1881, when he died from an internal hemorrhage.  

Garfield was removed to the "Jersey Shore" (ocean-front property along the coast of New Jersey) to recuperate.  This helped at first, but ultimately an infection in the wound killed him on September 19, 1881, when he died from an internal hemorrhage.  

The assassination shocked the country and discredited the Stalwarts.  Vice President Chester Arthur, who was Garfield's running mate in order to appease the Stalwarts, had never been elected to any public office before, and was never elected to one afterward either!  He had been an abolitionist and a New York attorney.  Historians view him as being ineffective as a president, which is not surprising given his lack of experience for the position.   

The assassination shocked the country and discredited the Stalwarts.  Vice President Chester Arthur, who was Garfield's running mate in order to appease the Stalwarts, had never been elected to any public office before, and was never elected to one afterward either!  He had been an abolitionist and a New York attorney.  Historians view him as being ineffective as a president, which is not surprising given his lack of experience for the position.   

The Democratic Party won big in the congressional elections of 1882, by advocating reform of the patronage or "spoils system."  President Arthur then abandoned the Stalwarts and established a civil service system whereby the victors cannot fire and replace government workers with his supporters.  Specifically, President Arthur signed into law the Pendleton Act in 1883, which established an examination system for federal jobs.  It also established the Civil Service Commission, which is a bipartisan committee to administer federal exams.  Those who supported "reform" of the government employment system declared victory.

The Democratic Party next won big in the congressional elections of 1882, by advocating reform of the patronage or "spoils system."  President Arthur then abandoned the Stalwarts and established a civil service system whereby the victor cannot fire and replace government workers with his supporters.  Specifically, President Arthur signed into law the Pendleton Act in 1883, which established an examination system for federal jobs.  It also established the Civil Service Commission, which is a bipartisan committee to administer federal exams.  Those who supported "reform" of the government employment system declared victory.

'''Debate:  Do you support a "spoils system" or a "civil service system"?'''

'''Debate:  Do you support a "spoils system" or a "civil service system"?'''

In many ways farmers in the 1870s were like homeschoolers today:  divided and lacking in political force.  The Grange Movement attempted to change that.  When there was a financial crisis known as the Panic of 1873, the Grange surged in popularity among farmers who had too much debt and faced expensive rates to ship their goods on the railroads.  Popularity grew in the farm States of Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin and Illinois, and the Grangers were able to pass "Granger laws" to regulate the railroads and storage facilities for the benefit of farmers.<ref>http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h854.html</ref>

In many ways farmers in the 1870s were like homeschoolers today:  divided and lacking in political force.  The Grange Movement attempted to change that.  When there was a financial crisis known as the Panic of 1873, the Grange surged in popularity among farmers who had too much debt and faced expensive rates to ship their goods on the railroads.  Popularity grew in the farm States of Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin and Illinois, and the Grangers were able to pass "Granger laws" to regulate the railroads and storage facilities for the benefit of farmers.<ref>http://www.u-s-history.com/pages/h854.html</ref>

The owner of a grain elevator (which charges farmers to store their grain) fought an Illinois Granger law all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court in ''Munn v. Illinois'', decided in 1876.  That decision upheld the power of States to regulate the rates charged by grain warehouses or any other public facility made available for the general public good, such as railroads.  This ruling in favor of the farmers energized the populist movement.  But a later lawsuit brought by the railroads to challenge State regulations of the terms it placed in its contracts, the ''Wabash'' case (1886), invalidated the State regulation and put the farmers almost back to where they started with respect to the power of States to regulate for their benefit.  The ''Wabash'' case led to the federal government ultimately intervening in favor of the farmers by creating the Interstate Commerce Commission in the Interstate Commerce Act (1887).  This new federal agency, known by its initials as the "ICC", regulates railroad rates and the terms of use in its contracts with the public.

The owner of a grain elevator (which charges farmers to store their grain) fought an Illinois Granger law all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court in ''Munn v. Illinois'', decided in 1876.  That decision upheld the power of States to regulate (lower or limit increases in) the rates charged by grain warehouses or any other public facility made available for the general public good, such as railroads.  This ruling in favor of the farmers energized the populist movement.  But a subsequent lawsuit brought by the railroads to challenge State regulation of railroad contracts, the ''Wabash'' case (1886), invalidated the State regulation and put the farmers back to square one (powerless to regulate).  The ''Wabash'' case led to the federal government ultimately intervening in favor of the farmers by creating the Interstate Commerce Commission in the Interstate Commerce Act (1887).  This new federal agency, known by its initials as the "ICC", regulates railroad rates and the terms of use in its contracts with the public.

The Grange Movement reached its zenith (peak) in 1875.  It then began to decline as its activists started more powerful organizations: the Greenback Party (in the 1870s), the Farmers' Alliances (in the 1880s) and the Populist Party (in the 1890s, which eventually joined with the Democratic Party).

The Grange Movement reached its zenith (peak) in 1875.  It then began to decline as its activists started more powerful organizations: the Greenback Party (in the 1870s), the Farmers' Alliances (in the 1880s) and the Populist Party (in the 1890s, which eventually joined with the Democratic Party).