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'''Roman Law''' developed in a rational and flexible manner, though obviously it failed to provide justice during the trial of Jesus, who was not a Roman citizen.  Roman Law began with a code of laws inscribed in the Twelve Tables around 450 B.C.  "Twelve" is an easy number to remember:  it's the same number of ancient tribes in Israel, though there is no obvious connection.

'''Roman Law''' developed in a rational and flexible manner, though obviously it failed to provide justice during the trial of Jesus, who was not a Roman citizen.  Roman Law began with a code of laws inscribed in the Twelve Tables around 450 B.C.  "Twelve" is an easy number to remember:  it's the same number of ancient tribes in Israel, though there is no obvious connection.

Judges (elected "praetors") interpreted and applied the Twelve Tables in various locations, using local customs and precedents.  This was the origin of the concept of "civil law," expressed in Latin as "jus civile."  Roman law thereby became flexible and powerful in a way never seen before.  The concept of "justice" developed whereby laws, not whim, governed society.  Judgments were to be entered based only on evidence presented pursuant to established procedures, and people learned to respected the law through use of a symbol representing notions of justice (Justitia, the Roman goddess of justice, who wore a blindfold and held scales in one hand and a sword in the other).  Rights were established for citizens and also for women and slaves.  Foreign law was addressed through "jus gentium," or "law of nations," which handled conflicts between Rome and distant locations.  Often judges would invoke the concept of universal law, or "jus naturale," to decide controversies.  Roman law valued private property and the central role played by families, and these priorities helped hold the vast empire together.  Influence of Roman law is seen in many instances in America today, from the concept that all citizens are equal under the law to the principle of "innocent until proven guilty."  A great body of law that helped protect the underprivileged was codified as "Justinian's Code" in A.D. 500s.  Along with the benefits of a single currency (coins) for commercial transactions, a common legal system was a major factor contributing to the Roman empire's success.

Judges (elected "praetors") interpreted and applied the Twelve Tables in various locations, using local customs and precedents.  This was the origin of the concept of "civil law," expressed in Latin as "jus civile."  Roman law thereby became flexible and powerful in a way never seen before.  The concept of "justice" developed whereby laws, not whim, governed society.  Judgments were to be entered based only on evidence presented pursuant to established procedures, and people learned to respected the law through use of a symbol representing notions of justice (Justitia, the Roman goddess of justice, who wore a blindfold and held scales in one hand and a sword in the other).  Rights were established for citizens and also for women and slaves.  Foreign law was addressed through "jus gentium," or "law of nations," which handled conflicts between Rome and distant locations.  Often judges would invoke the concept of universal law, or "jus naturale," to decide controversies.  Roman law valued private property and the central role played by families, and these priorities helped hold the vast empire together.  Influence of Roman law is seen in many instances in America today, from the concept that all citizens are equal under the law to the principle of "innocent until proven guilty."  A great body of law that helped protect the underprivileged was codified as "Justinian's Code" in the A.D. 500s.  Along with the benefits of a single currency (coins) for commercial transactions, a common legal system was a major factor contributing to the Roman empire's success.

   

   

As important as Roman law was, the '''Roman military''' was even more influential.  Every physically capable male Roman was required to serve in the army.  Despite this forced service that might seem likely to result in a poor army, the Roman soldiers were excellent.  Companies of about 120 men formed Roman "legions" of 3000 to 6000 men, well-equipped with armor that included shields, helmets, swords and even javelins.  The Roman soldiers were considered nearly invincible and could easily defeat the Greeks.  In 272 B.C., the Roman army crushed the army of Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, who attempted to defend Greek cities in southern Italy.  By 265 B.C., the Romans controlled all of Italy except for the Po Valley.

As important as Roman law was, the '''Roman military''' was even more influential.  Every physically capable male Roman was required to serve in the army.  Despite this forced service that might seem likely to result in a poor army, the Roman soldiers were excellent.  Companies of about 120 men formed Roman "legions" of 3000 to 6000 men, well-equipped with armor that included shields, helmets, swords and even javelins.  The Roman soldiers were considered nearly invincible and could easily defeat the Greeks.  In 272 B.C., the Roman army crushed the army of Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, who attempted to defend Greek cities in southern Italy.  By 265 B.C., the Romans controlled all of Italy except for the Po Valley.

===The Punic Wars===

===The Punic Wars===

Rome fought and won a series of important wars known as the Punic (PYOO-nik) Wars between 264 and 146 B.C. against the Phoenician city of Carthage on southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.  This enabled the Roman Republic to gain control of the Mediterranean Sea and exclusive control over trade of wine, olive oil, food and many other goods.  There were three Punic Wars in all, named "Punic" after the Roman term for Phoenician.   

Rome fought and won a series of important wars known as the Punic (PYOO-nik) Wars between 264 and 146 B.C. against the Phoenician city of Carthage on the southern coast of the Mediterranean Sea.  This enabled the Roman Republic to gain control of the Mediterranean Sea and exclusive control over the trade of wine, olive oil, food and many other goods.  There were three Punic Wars in all, named "Punic" after the Roman term for Phoenician.   

In the First Punic War (264-241 B.C.), Rome conquered the island of Sicily and acquired its grain-producing territory.  Rome developed a navy as a result of this war.  With no previous knowledge of shipbuilding, the Roman ships were at first no match for the powerful Carthaginian navy.  But the invention of the "corvus" (a hook-like device by which the Romans could attach their ships to Carthaginian ships) allowed the Romans to board enemy ships, gaining the advantage with their superior hand-to-hand combat and effectively winning the war.

In the First Punic War (264-241 B.C.), Rome conquered the island of Sicily and acquired its grain-producing territory.  Rome developed a navy as a result of this war.  With no previous knowledge of shipbuilding, the Roman ships were at first no match for the powerful Carthaginian navy.  But the invention of the "corvus" (a hook-like device by which the Romans could attach their ships to Carthaginian ships) allowed the Romans to board enemy ships, gaining the advantage with their superior hand-to-hand combat and effectively winning the war.

In the Second Punic War (218-202 B.C.), Rome fought against the military genius named Hannibal.  Hannibal, the leader of Carthage, took his entire army through Spain and then, in a preemptive move, crossed the Italian Alps in merely 15 days to the great surprise of the Romans.  Hannibal's crossing of the Alps with 30,000 men and some elephants is considered one of the greatest military feats of the ancient world.  He then beat the Romans in a series of battles lasting 16 years but could not conquer Rome itself.  Hannibal had to retreat to Africa when the Romans attacked Carthage.  Rome acquired Spain as a result of the Second Punic War.   

In the Second Punic War (218-202 B.C.), Rome fought against the military genius named Hannibal.  Hannibal, the leader of Carthage, took his entire army through Spain and then, in a preemptive move, crossed the Italian Alps in merely 15 days to the great surprise of the Romans.  Hannibal's crossing of the Alps with 30,000 men and some elephants is considered one of the greatest military feats of the ancient world.  He then beat the Romans in a series of battles lasting 16 years but could not conquer Rome itself.  Hannibal had to retreat to Africa when the Romans attacked Carthage.  Rome acquired Spain as a result of the Second Punic War.   

In the Third Punic War, the Romans destroyed Carthage (146 B.C.), killing its inhabitants or taking them as slaves.  They the vicious Romans spread salt over all the Cathaginian farms to make it impossible to grow crops.  The Romans then went into Macedonia and Greece to defeat the region as revenge for having helped Hannibal.  By the end, Rome controlled all the land around the Mediterranean Sea, which was the entire western civilized world.  The Roman senator Cato the Elder encouraged Rome's terrible revenge by ending every speech with the conclusion, ''Carthago delenda est'': "Carthage must be destroyed."  The Roman soldiers returned home with their winnings, and with Greek knowledge.  Rome itself became Hellenistic, fascinated by the culture of the Greeks, including their architecture, their language, and their system of justice.  The Roman empire helped spread Greek knowledge further than the Greeks themselves could.

In the Third Punic War, the Romans destroyed Carthage (146 B.C.), killing its inhabitants or taking them as slaves.  Then the vicious Romans spread salt over all the Cathaginian farms to make it impossible to grow crops.  The Romans then went into Macedonia and Greece to defeat the region in revenge for having helped Hannibal.  By the end, Rome controlled all the land around the Mediterranean Sea, which was the entire western civilized world.  The Roman senator Cato the Elder encouraged Rome's terrible revenge by ending every speech with the conclusion, ''Carthago delenda est'': "Carthage must be destroyed."  The Roman soldiers returned home with their winnings, and with Greek knowledge.  Rome itself became Hellenistic, fascinated by the culture of the Greeks, including their architecture, their language, and their system of justice.  The Roman empire helped spread Greek knowledge further than the Greeks themselves could.

===Leading up to an Empire===

===Leading up to an Empire===

There were many other Christian martyrs, such as a Christian named "Valentine".  In A.D. 269, the Roman Emperor Claudius II ("Claudius the Cruel") banned marriages because he was having difficulty raising an army.  Valentine defied the order and performed Christian marriages in secret.  Inevitably Valentine was discovered, and he was sentenced to be beaten to death with clubs and beheaded.  The jailor's daughter visited him during his imprisonment and just before his death on February 14th, Valentine wrote her a sweet letter that he signed, "From your Valentine."

There were many other Christian martyrs, such as a Christian named "Valentine".  In A.D. 269, the Roman Emperor Claudius II ("Claudius the Cruel") banned marriages because he was having difficulty raising an army.  Valentine defied the order and performed Christian marriages in secret.  Inevitably Valentine was discovered, and he was sentenced to be beaten to death with clubs and beheaded.  The jailor's daughter visited him during his imprisonment and just before his death on February 14th, Valentine wrote her a sweet letter that he signed, "From your Valentine."

The inspiration of the Christian martyrs ultimately prevailed over the mighty Roman empire.  Official persecution of Christians continued only until the Edict of Milan in A.D. 313, issued by the emperor Constantine.  This edict established Christianity as an acceptable religion to be practice in Rome.  In A.D. 391, emperor Theodosius declared Christianity to be the official religion of the Roman empire and the worship of Roman gods was outlawed.  The only legal religions in the Roman empire were then Christianity and Judaism.  All the Roman emperors after Constantine were Christian, with one exception (Julian "the Apostate").

The inspiration of the Christian martyrs ultimately prevailed over the mighty Roman empire.  Official persecution of Christians continued only until the Edict of Milan in A.D. 313, issued by the emperor Constantine.  This edict established Christianity as an acceptable religion to be practiced in Rome.  In A.D. 391, emperor Theodosius declared Christianity to be the official religion of the Roman empire and the worship of Roman gods was outlawed.  The only legal religions in the Roman empire were then Christianity and Judaism.  All the Roman emperors after Constantine were Christian, with one exception (Julian "the Apostate").

Constantine built a new Christian capital in the East for the Roman empire that would be safe from the German invaders, and he called it Constantinople.  The city was located to benefit from the expanding trade with the East.  He built the beautiful Church of Holy Wisdom there, now known as the "Cathedral of the Hagia Sophia."  This city survived and thrived for another 1000 years, as '''the eastern portion of the Roman Empire did not decline and fall as the western portion did'''.  The architecture of this city, now known as Istanbul, Turkey, is a mixture of Christianity and Hellenistic classicism.  It is located on the Bosporus Strait at the point where Europe meets Asia, and was the wealthiest city in Europe throughout the Middle Ages.  Half the city is in Europe and the other half is in Asia.  It was sometimes called the "Queen of Cities."

Constantine built a new Christian capital in the East for the Roman empire that would be safe from the German invaders, and he called it Constantinople.  The city was located to benefit from the expanding trade with the East.  He built the beautiful Church of Holy Wisdom there, now known as the "Cathedral of the Hagia Sophia."  This city survived and thrived for another 1000 years, as '''the eastern portion of the Roman Empire did not decline and fall as the western portion did'''.  The architecture of this city, now known as Istanbul, Turkey, is a mixture of Christianity and Hellenistic classicism.  It is located on the Bosporus Strait at the point where Europe meets Asia, and was the wealthiest city in Europe throughout the Middle Ages.  Half the city is in Europe and the other half is in Asia.  It was sometimes called the "Queen of Cities."

   

   

Meanwhile, Christianity was hindered by internal conflicts over doctrine, otherwise known has heresies.  The biggest heresy was "Arianism", based on teachings of a Libyan priest in Alexandria, Egypt, who declared that Jesus was an exceptional man but was not divine (God).  To address this heresy, Constantine convened the Council of Nicaea, in A.D. 325 in Asia Minor (present-day Turkey), and he presided over it.  This was the first of several important ecumenical councils held by Christians, as one was held every 50 or 100 years.  The 300 Christian leaders declared that Jesus was a human who was also fully and eternally divine, and they excommunicated and banished Arian (i.e., the emperor Constantine forced him into exile).  This issue did not generate as much of a division amongst the bishops as some modern authors suggest, and only two of over 300 bishops dissented when the nature of Jesus's divinity was voted upon.   

Meanwhile, Christianity was hindered by internal conflicts over doctrine, otherwise known as heresies.  The biggest heresy was "Arianism", based on teachings of a Libyan priest in Alexandria, Egypt, who declared that Jesus was an exceptional man but was not divine (God).  To address this heresy, Constantine convened the Council of Nicaea, in A.D. 325 in Asia Minor (present-day Turkey), and he presided over it.  This was the first of several important ecumenical councils held by Christians, as one was held every 50 or 100 years.  The 300 Christian leaders declared that Jesus was a human who was also fully and eternally divine, and they excommunicated and banished Arian (i.e., the emperor Constantine forced him into exile).  This issue did not generate as much of a division amongst the bishops as some modern authors suggest, and only two of over 300 bishops dissented when the nature of Jesus's divinity was voted upon.   

The Christian leaders issued the Nicene Creed, which confirms the divine Trinity of God, Jesus and the Holy Spirit.  Virtually all Christians of almost any denomination today, Protestant and Catholic, adhere to the Nicene Creed, and many Christians recite it daily or weekly.  As to Arianism, it was simpler than Christianity and gained popularity among Germanic invaders of the Roman Empire, but lost influence after the 8th century.

The Christian leaders issued the Nicene Creed, which confirms the divine Trinity of God, Jesus and the Holy Spirit.  Virtually all Christians of almost any denomination today, Protestant and Catholic, adhere to the Nicene Creed, and many Christians recite it daily or weekly.  As to Arianism, it was simpler than Christianity and gained popularity among Germanic invaders of the Roman Empire, but lost influence after the 8th century.

As a young warrior, Attila had been captured and released by the Romans, and he vowed to return to Rome victorious as king.  Relying on seers and "gods", Attila nearly did conquer the Roman empire.  For five years from A.D. 445 to 450 he devastated the eastern Roman empire, destroying anything in his path between the Rhine and the Caspian Sea.  In 451 he amassed perhaps the largest army in the history of the world until that time, a total of a half-million men, and began marching towards Rome.  He quickly conquered Gaul (present-day France) and devastated any European city in his path.  He was not stopped until an alliance of the Visigoths and Romans surprised the Huns and forced them to retreat by about a hundred miles.  One of the most bloody battles in all of history, the Battle of Chalons, ensued.  The Visigoths and Romans defeated the Huns there.

As a young warrior, Attila had been captured and released by the Romans, and he vowed to return to Rome victorious as king.  Relying on seers and "gods", Attila nearly did conquer the Roman empire.  For five years from A.D. 445 to 450 he devastated the eastern Roman empire, destroying anything in his path between the Rhine and the Caspian Sea.  In 451 he amassed perhaps the largest army in the history of the world until that time, a total of a half-million men, and began marching towards Rome.  He quickly conquered Gaul (present-day France) and devastated any European city in his path.  He was not stopped until an alliance of the Visigoths and Romans surprised the Huns and forced them to retreat by about a hundred miles.  One of the most bloody battles in all of history, the Battle of Chalons, ensued.  The Visigoths and Romans defeated the Huns there.

But Attila was clever, and redirected his Huns towards Rome by invading Italy.  He was headed towards the heart of the Roman empire:  Rome itself.  He destroyed everything in his path in the Roman countryside.  Unable to stop Attila the Hun by force, a peaceful mission led by Pope Leo I traveled out to meet Attila in 452 and try to persuade him to spare Rome.  Moral persuasion worked where violence had not, and Attila did not invade Rome.

But Attila was clever, and redirected his Huns towards Rome by invading Italy.  He was headed towards the heart of the Roman empire:  Rome itself.  He destroyed everything in his path in the Roman countryside.  Unable to stop Attila the Hun by force, a peaceful mission led by Pope Leo I traveled out to meet Attila in 452 and tried to persuade him to spare Rome.  Moral persuasion worked where violence had not, and Attila did not invade Rome.

A year later, at only age 47, Attila died apparently from a mere nosebleed, choking to death on his own blood.  It was an ironically pathetic cause of death for one of the most feared warriors in the history of the world.

A year later, at only age 47, Attila died apparently from a mere nosebleed, choking to death on his own blood.  It was an ironically pathetic cause of death for one of the most feared warriors in the history of the world.