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Joan of Arc, a girl who felt called by God to lead the French army, defeated the English at the siege at Orleans in 1430 at the age of seventeen, but was later captured by the English and burned at stake as a heretic in 1431.

Joan of Arc, a girl who felt called by God to lead the French army, defeated the English at the siege at Orleans in 1430 at the age of seventeen, but was later captured by the English and burned at stake as a heretic in 1431.

==Church Philosophers and Architecture==

==The High Middle Ages==

While nation-states were growing in Europe, so were universities.  A rapidly-growing number of rich and poor students were instructed in universities in Paris, Oxford, Naples, Padua, Salerno and many others in theology, philosophy, law and medicine.  During the 1100s and 1200s “scholasticism” flourished, which sought to combine logic of the classical philosophers with medieval Christian theology.  The Scholastics were divided into two groups, the realists (preferring the works of Plato) and the nominalists (preferring Aristotle’s teachings).   

The period from the late 1000s to about 1300 is known as the “High Middle Ages,” as society flourished in several ways.  There was substantial population growth and there was significant intellectual activity.   

Saint Anselm (1033-1109), born in northern Italy, was an early intellectual giant of scholasticism.  The period from the late 1000s to about 1300 is known as the “High Middle Ages,” partly due to this intellectual activity known as scholasticism and also due to great population growth.   

Many new universities developed.  While nation-states were growing in Europe, so were universities.  A rapidly growing number of rich and poor students were instructed in universities in Paris, Oxford, Naples, Padua, Salerno and many others in theology, philosophy, law and medicine.   

Scholasticism strengthened understanding of Christian doctrine through careful definition and systematic argument.  Anselm preferred to defend Christianity through use of powerful logical arguments, rather than relying entirely and solely on scripture.  Anselm is famous for the first “ontological” argument, which is an argument attempting to prove the existence of God by reasoning from the definition of God.   

There were advances in architecture (the design of buildings).   

Anselm was a brilliant Latin scholar who became a Benedictine monk to the disappointment of his father, who wanted him to enter politics.  After Anselm became a monk, he “proved” the existence of God as follows.  Everyone, even a fool, can conceive of a variation in perfection of a being.  In other words, some beings are more perfect than others with respect to justice, wisdom or power.  Because there is a variation, there must be a being that is most perfect.  But “existence” is an attribute of perfection:  it is more perfect to exist than not to exist.  Therefore the most perfect being must also exist.  Therefore God, defined as the most perfect being conceivable, must exist.

Perhaps most important of all, a new intellectual movement known as “scholasticism” arose.

Anselm was appointed the archbishop of Canterbury, England, which he accepted reluctantly.  He became determined to reform the English Church and he fought against efforts by the King of England to control or interfere with the Church.  At one point Anselm presented his grievances against King William to Pope Urban II.  These conflicts were precursors to a huge dispute between a pope and English king centuries later, which caused the king to form his own church and split from Roman authority.

Scholasticism strengthened understanding of Christian doctrine through careful definition and systematic argument.  It flourished during the 1100s and 1200s, combining the logic of the classical philosophers with medieval Christian theology.  The Scholastics were divided into two groups, the realists (preferring the works of Plato) and the nominalists (preferring Aristotle’s teachings).

The most famous Scholastic was Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274), a Dominican monk who wrote Summa Theologica.  Many consider this to be the most perfect and complete summary of Christian theology, and he established an entire type of Christian philosophy known as “Thomism”, which is followed to this day.  Aquinas was somewhat controversial during his life, but was quickly revered by the Catholic Church after his death.  He developed five new proofs for the existence of God using logic.  The first three were “cosmological” proofs rather than the “ontological” approach of Anselm.  A cosmological proof deals with the natural order of the universe.  Aquinas’ most famous cosmological argument was that whatever is in motion (for example, us) must have been put in motion by something else (our parents).  They, in turn, must have been put in motion by something else (their parents).  But this sequence cannot go on to infinity.  There must have been a first mover.  This we call “God”.   

Saint Anselm (1033-1109), born in northern Italy, was an early intellectual giant of scholasticism.  Anselm preferred to defend Christianity through use of powerful logical arguments, rather than relying entirely and solely on scripture.  Anselm is famous for developing the first “ontological” argument, which is an argument attempting to prove the existence of God by reasoning from the definition of God.   

Thomas Aquinas’ views on the nature of man included a unique interpretation of the Fall of Man; some would call it an incomplete one.  He believed that while men had rebelled against God and the human will was fallen, the human intellect remained perfect.  Therefore, human wisdom could be relied upon and given as much prominence as the teachings of the Bible.  This idea justified mixing the works of the classical, secular philosophers into Christian theology.  Also as a result, the authority of the church became as important, if not more so, than that of the Bible.  These ideas set the stage for humanism, which was the predominant philosophy of the Renaissance.  

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Thomas Aquinas’ views on the nature of man included a unique interpretation of the Fall of Man, which some criticize as being an incomplete view.  Aquinas believed that while men had rebelled against God and the human will was fallen, the human intellect remained perfect.  Therefore, human wisdom could be relied upon and given as much prominence as the teachings of the Bible.  This idea justified mixing the works of the classical, secular philosophers into Christian theology.  Under this view, the authority of the church became as important, if not more so, than that of the Bible.  These ideas set the stage for humanism, which was the predominant philosophy of the Renaissance.  

Thomas Aquinas is further known for his famous observation that the devil cannot withstand mockery.  Mockery can be useful in defeating a bad idea or temptation.   

Thomas Aquinas is further known for his famous observation that the devil cannot withstand mockery.  Mockery can be useful in defeating a bad idea or temptation.   

There were other prominent Scholastics, such as Peter Abelard (1079-1142), who used logic and questioning to discuss issues of religious controversy in his Sic et Non (“Yes and No”).

There were other prominent Scholastics, such as Peter Abelard (1079-1142), who used logic and questioning to discuss issues of religious controversy in his work entitled ''Sic et Non'' (“Yes and No”).

There was outstanding architecture in the Middle Ages, which can be seen in the majestic churches built during that era.  There were two main styles: Romanesque and Gothic.  Romanesque architecture is characterized by thick walls, rounded arches and small windows.  The Gothic style, developed later, consisted of taller, perpendicular structures with long windows, pointed arches and “flying buttresses” (stone supports on the outer walls of churches).  Gothic architecture, with its tall, pointed spires is said to reflect the desire of people of the Middle Ages to grow closer to God, reaching towards heaven and away from the earth.  Tall windows allowed sunlight to illuminate the interior, unlike Romanesque architecture, in which windows were small and interiors were dim.  A particularly stunning example of Gothic architecture is the Notre Dame in Paris, on which construction began in 1163 during the reign of Louis VII, and was completed about 200 years later in about 1345.  The Notre Dame features a beautiful stained-glass “rose window,” another distinguishing characteristic of Gothic churches.

 

 

There was outstanding architecture in the Middle Ages, which can be seen in the majestic churches built during that era.  There were two main styles: Romanesque and Gothic.  Romanesque architecture is characterized by thick walls, rounded arches and small windows.  The Gothic style, developed later, consisted of taller, perpendicular structures with long windows, pointed arches and “flying buttresses” (stone supports on the outer walls of churches).   

 

Gothic architecture, with its tall, pointed spires is said to reflect the desire of people of the Middle Ages to grow closer to God, reaching towards heaven and away from the earth.  Tall windows allowed sunlight to illuminate the interior, unlike Romanesque architecture, in which windows were small and interiors were dim.  A particularly stunning example of Gothic architecture is the Notre Dame in Paris, on which construction began in 1163 during the reign of Louis VII, and was completed about 200 years later in about 1345.  The Notre Dame features a beautiful stained-glass “rose window,” another distinguishing characteristic of Gothic churches.

==The End of the Byzantine Empire and the Expansion of Islam==

==The End of the Byzantine Empire and the Expansion of Islam==