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In this lecture we recount how the Middle Ages ended:  with the Renaissance and the Reformation.  The Renaissance lasted from the 1300s to the 1600s, and it brought the Middle Ages to a close.   

In this lecture we recount how the Middle Ages ended:  with the Renaissance and the Reformation.  The Renaissance lasted from the 1300s to the 1600s, and it brought the Middle Ages to a close.   

“Renaissance” is a French word for “rebirth”, and the rebirth was in renewed respect for artistic and intellectual progress not seen since classical Greece and Rome.  The Merriam-Webster online dictionary<ref>http://www.m-w.com</ref> describes “Renaissance” as follows:  “the transitional movement in Europe between medieval and modern times beginning in the 14th century in Italy, lasting into the 17th century,” which included “a flowering of the arts and literature” and “the beginnings of modern science.”

“Renaissance” is a French word for “rebirth”.  This rebirth was in renewed respect for artistic and intellectual progress not seen since classical Greece and Rome.  The Merriam-Webster online dictionary<ref>http://www.m-w.com</ref> describes “Renaissance” as follows:  “the transitional movement in Europe between medieval and modern times beginning in the 14th century in Italy, lasting into the 17th century,” which included “a flowering of the arts and literature” and “the beginnings of modern science.”

   

   

The “Middle Ages” represent the “middle” between the great achievements of the ancient world and the Renaissance.  A poet named Petrach (1304-1374), discussed below, described the early Middle Ages as “Dark Ages” of social decay.  The “rebirth” or “revival” in the Renaissance was the rediscovery of the Roman and Greek cultures, as enhanced by Christianity.  The “new learning” was a new recognition of the ideas discovered and developed in the past in art, science and other fields of inquiry.

The “Middle Ages” represent the “middle” between the great achievements of the ancient world and the Renaissance.  A poet named Petrach (1304-1374), discussed below, described the early Middle Ages as “Dark Ages” of social decay.  The “rebirth” or “revival” in the Renaissance was the rediscovery of the Roman and Greek cultures, as enhanced by Christianity.  The “new learning” was a new recognition of the ideas discovered and developed in the past in art, science and other fields of inquiry.

The earliest beginning of the Renaissance was the poet Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), discussed below, who is famous for writing ''Dante’s Inferno'' about Hell.  Another beginning date for the Renaissance is the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453, when gunpowder and the cannon became essential parts of warfare.  This military defeat caused Greek (Byzantine) scholars to flee to Rome, bringing their scholarship with them.  They also brought their hostility to the Roman Catholic Church, causing changes to the religious order in Europe.

The earliest beginning of the Renaissance was the poet Dante Alighieri (1265-1321), discussed below, who is famous for writing ''Dante’s Inferno'' about Hell.  Another beginning date for the Renaissance is the fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453, when gunpowder and the cannon became essential parts of warfare.  This military defeat caused Greek (Byzantine) scholars to flee to Rome, bringing their scholarship with them.  They also brought their hostility to the Roman Catholic Church, causing changes to the religious order in Europe.

By the 1400s there were numerous great artists, and also advances in the existing Gothic Art.  By the year 1500 the High Renaissance was in full bloom.

By the 1400s there were numerous great artists, and also advances in the existing Gothic Art.  By the year 1500 the High Renaissance was in full bloom.

But a schism in Christianity in Europe was just around the corner.  In 1505, a law student named Martin Luther was caught outside in the middle of a thunderstorm.  A bolt of lightning struck the ground near him.  Terrified, he cried out for protection and promised to become a monk if he survived the storm.  He did survive, and then left law school to join an Augustinian monastery.

But a schism in Christianity in Europe was just around the corner.  In 1505, a law student named Martin Luther was caught outside in the middle of a thunderstorm.  A bolt of lightning struck the ground near him.  Terrified, he cried out for protection and promised to become a monk if he survived the storm.  He did survive, and then left law school to join an Augustinian monastery.

Martin Luther founded Protestantism in Europe on October 31, 1517, when he nailed 95 “Theses” or issues to the door of his Wittenberg Church in what is now Germany.  A decade later, in 1529, King Henry VIII founded a different Protestant religion for an entirely different reason:  he wanted the pope to approve his divorce from Catherine of Aragon, and when the pope refused, the king founded the Church of England and seized all property of the Catholic Church in England.  Other Protestant faiths also began in the 1500s, and the Catholic Church responded with an internal reformation of its own, often called the counter-reformation.

Martin Luther founded Protestantism in Europe on October 31, 1517, when he nailed 95 “Theses” or issues to the door of his Wittenberg Church in what is now Germany.  A decade later, in 1529, King Henry VIII founded another Christian denomination for an entirely different reason:  he wanted the pope to approve his divorce from Catherine of Aragon, and when the pope refused, the king founded the Church of England and seized all property of the Catholic Church in England.  Other Protestant faiths also began in the 1500s, and the Catholic Church responded with an internal reformation of its own, often called the counter-reformation. We end this lecture with a discussion of Asia in the Middle Ages, which was unaffected by both the Renaissance and the Reformation.  Asia had issues of its own.

We end this lecture with a discussion of Asia in the Middle Ages, which was unaffected by both the Renaissance and the Reformation.  Asia had issues of its own.

But before we discuss the Renaissance and the weighty issues of the Reformation, this is the perfect time to pause for a moment and review the origin and development of the English language.  English is a relatively young language. It does not come from Sanskrit or Hebrew or Greek or Latin. Recall that the Roman empire could never conquer the region of present-day Germany, and English is a Germanic Language within the Indo-European category of languages.  Let's learn something about the history of the English language.

But before we discuss the Renaissance and the weighty issues of the Reformation, this is the perfect time to pause for a moment and review the origin and development of the English language.  English is a relatively young language. It does not come from Sanskrit or Hebrew or Greek or Latin. Recall that the Roman empire could never conquer the region of present-day Germany, and English is a Germanic Language within the Indo-European category of languages.  Let's learn something about the history of the English language.

The number "six", for example, is listed as having an origin of "bef. 12c," which means before A.D. 1100.  That places the date of first use of simple numbers as before Middle English.  It is not surprising that numbers would originate earlier than most (but not all) other words, as numbers were essential in keeping track of people and things.

The number "six", for example, is listed as having an origin of "bef. 12c," which means before A.D. 1100.  That places the date of first use of simple numbers as before Middle English.  It is not surprising that numbers would originate earlier than most (but not all) other words, as numbers were essential in keeping track of people and things.

More generally, the study of the origin of a word is known as "etymology". Some even specialize in the field of "linguistics", which includes all aspects of languages.  Beware, however, distortions in the field by those who insist that all languages are equal. They also claim that all religions are equal in truth or value, and that is no more true for religion than it is for languages.  Every language has advantages or disadvantages, and the path of world history is in some ways the triumph of superior languages over inferior ones.

More generally, the study of the origin of a word is known as "etymology". Some even specialize in the field of "linguistics", which includes all aspects of languages.  Beware, however, distortions in the field by those who insist that all languages are equal. They also claim that all religions are equal in truth or value.  But just as different religions are not equal in truth, different languages are not equal in value or usefulness.  Every language has advantages or disadvantages, and the path of world history is in some ways the triumph of superior languages over inferior ones.

===Old and Middle English===

===Old and Middle English===

The Renaissance sparked tremendous achievements in science by Copernicus, Kepler and, to a lesser extent, Galileo, all of whom we will discuss more in the next lecture.  Exploration of the world also began during the Renaissance, including the voyages of Columbus (1492), Magellan and Da Gama, whom we will also address in the next class.   

The Renaissance sparked tremendous achievements in science by Copernicus, Kepler and, to a lesser extent, Galileo, all of whom we will discuss more in the next lecture.  Exploration of the world also began during the Renaissance, including the voyages of Columbus (1492), Magellan and Da Gama, whom we will also address in the next class.   

The northern city-states of Italy were a perfect location for the Renaissance to occur, as Italian culture was built off of classical Greek and Roman civilization.  Recall that Italy and Germany did not form nation-states like France and England, and without a centralized government the Italian city-states were conducive to culture and intellectual renewal.  The Italian cities had become important and wealthy locations by selling and trading during the Crusades, and Muslim and Byzantine learning had also been brought to Italy during the Crusades.  The Italian city of Florence was home to wealthy families, such as the prominent Medici family, who were willing to finance artists.  Friendly competition developed between the different city-states brought out the best in people and created an environment in which initiative and creativity flourished.

The northern city-states of Italy were a perfect location for the Renaissance to occur, as Italian culture was built off of classical Greek and Roman civilization.  Recall that Italy and Germany did not form nation-states like France and England, and without a centralized government the Italian city-states were conducive to culture and intellectual renewal.  The Italian cities had become important and wealthy locations by selling and trading during the Crusades, and Muslim and Byzantine cultural influences came to Italy during the Crusades.  The Italian city of Florence was home to wealthy families, such as the prominent Medici family, who were willing to finance artists.  Friendly competition among the different city-states brought out the best in people and created an environment in which initiative and creativity flourished.

The Medici family was the most prominent family in Italy, and all of Europe, in the 1400s.  They acquired great wealth and prominence through banking, and used their wealth both to become powerful politicians and serve as patrons of great artists like Michelangelo, making him the first wealthy artist in history.  Cosimo de Medici (1389-1464) became ruler of Florence, and Lorenzo de Medici (“Lorenzo the Magnificent”) (1449-92) and his brother later ruled Florence.  Lorenzo’s second son became Pope Leo X, who was pope when the Reformation began.

The Medici family was the most prominent family in Italy, and in all of Europe, in the 1400s.  They acquired great wealth and prominence through banking, and used their wealth both to become powerful politicians and serve as patrons of great artists like Michelangelo, making him the first wealthy artist in history.  Cosimo de Medici (1389-1464) became ruler of Florence, and Lorenzo de Medici (“Lorenzo the Magnificent”) (1449-92) and his brother later ruled Florence.  Lorenzo’s second son became Pope Leo X, who was pope when the Reformation began.

Renaissance man Leon Battista Alberti declared, “Men can do all things if they will.”  This "can-do" spirit was typical of the Renaissance, which was one of the most special times in world history.  Alberti, himself a poet, scientist, painter, architect, and mathematician, was the one who first coined the idea of “rebirth” or “Renaissance”.

Renaissance man Leon Battista Alberti declared, “Men can do all things if they will.”  This "can-do" spirit was typical of the Renaissance, which was one of the most special times in world history.  Alberti, himself a poet, scientist, painter, architect, and mathematician, was the one who first coined the idea of “rebirth” or “Renaissance”.

===Artists===

===Artists===

[[Image:Pieta.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Pieta|The Pieta]]]]

[[Image:Pieta.jpg|thumb|300px|[[Pieta|The Pieta]]]]

Perhaps the greatest achievement of the Renaissance was the outstanding artwork it produced.  Especially in the Italian cities of Florence and Rome, master artists emerged who produced astonishing works of art in sculpture, painting and architecture.  The devout Christian atmosphere in Italy combined with the competitive spirit of the Italian city-states created a perfect environment for art to flourish.   

Perhaps the greatest achievement of the Renaissance was the outstanding artwork it produced.  Especially in the Italian cities of Florence and Rome, master artists emerged who produced astonishing works of art in sculpture, painting and architecture.  The devout Christian atmosphere in Italy, combined with the competitive spirit of the Italian city-states, created a perfect environment for art to flourish.   

One of the first artists to incorporate new ideas into his artwork was Giotto di Bondone (1267-1337), who worked unprecedented elements of realism into his paintings.  Giotto, a typical Renaissance jack-of-all-trades, also designed the innovative campanile (bell tower) for the Santa Maria del Fiore cathedral in Florence.   

One of the first artists to incorporate new ideas into his artwork was Giotto di Bondone (1267-1337), who worked unprecedented elements of realism into his paintings.  Giotto, a typical Renaissance jack-of-all-trades, also designed the innovative campanile (bell tower) for the Santa Maria del Fiore cathedral in Florence.   

Donatello (1386-1466) was an influential painter and sculptor of the early Renaissance from Florence.  He sculpted a bronze “David,” the first free-standing nude statue since the days of the Greeks and Romans, and sculpted another famous statue of St. George.  Titian (Tiziano Vicelli) (1477-1576) was a painter skilled with unprecedented use of color and loose brushwork, evident in his stunning masterpiece ''The Assumption of the Virgin''.  Raphael (1482-1520) also mastered the use of color and painted beautiful frescoes in churches and for private patrons, the most famous of which may be ''The School of Athens'', an interesting painting depicting Plato and Aristotle surrounded by their pupils.  He inspired the two greatest artists in the history of the Renaissance, and indeed of all of world history: Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.   

Donatello (1386-1466) was an influential painter and sculptor of the early Renaissance from Florence.  He sculpted a bronze “David,” the first free-standing nude statue since the days of the Greeks and Romans, and sculpted another famous statue of St. George.  Titian (Tiziano Vicelli) (1477-1576) was a painter skilled with unprecedented use of color and loose brushwork, evident in his stunning masterpiece ''The Assumption of the Virgin''.  Raphael (1482-1520) also mastered the use of color and painted beautiful frescoes in churches and for private patrons, the most famous of which may be ''The School of Athens'', an interesting painting depicting Plato and Aristotle surrounded by their pupils.  He inspired the two greatest artists in the history of the Renaissance, and indeed of all of world history: Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci.   

Michelangelo (1475-1564) is best known for his sculpture of a full-sized statue of David and for painting the ceiling of the [[Sistine Chapel]], an astounding fresco that included over 300 Biblical figures (including the famous image of God creating Adam with an outstretched arm and hand that touches Adam's outstretched arm and hand).  The Sistine Chapel that took more than four years to complete, and an impatient Church official who wanted it completed sooner ended up being featured in the depiction of Hell!  Michelangelo also sculpted amazing renditions of Moses and “the Pieta,” a sculpture of Jesus in Mary’s arms after the Crucifixion (see above right).  The Pieta has an overpowering sense of love and tragedy to it unmatched by any other work of art in history.  Following Brunelleschi’s model Duomo in Florence, Michelangelo designed the dome for St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome.     

Michelangelo (1475-1564) is best known for his sculpture of a full-sized statue of David and for painting the ceiling of the [[Sistine Chapel]], an astounding fresco that includes over 300 Biblical figures (including the famous image of God creating Adam with an outstretched arm and hand that touches Adam's outstretched arm and hand).  The Sistine Chapel that took more than four years to complete, and an impatient Church official who wanted it completed sooner ended up being featured in the depiction of Hell!  Michelangelo also sculpted amazing renditions of Moses and “the Pieta,” a sculpture of Jesus in Mary’s arms after the Crucifixion (see above right).  The Pieta has an overpowering sense of love and tragedy to it unmatched by any other work of art in history.  Following Brunelleschi’s model Duomo in Florence, Michelangelo also designed the dome for St. Peter’s Basilica in Rome.     

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) embodied the “Renaissance man.”  He was an architect, anatomist, sculptor, scientist, mathematician, musician, and painter.  He created masterpieces such as the ''Mona Lisa'', the famous portrait of a plain-looking woman with an enigmatic smile, and ''The Last Supper'', a fabulous wall painting of Christ and the Twelve Apostles which has not been well preserved.  He kept notebooks full of anatomical drawings such as the Vitruvian Man.  It is said that Leonardo could draw with one hand while at the same time painting with the other, and he wrote backwards in his notebooks, so they would have to be held up to a mirror to be read.  He was way ahead of his time and created conceptual designs for many devices such as a flying machine and an armored tank.  He was the first to come up with the ideas of the calculator and the use of solar power for energy.   

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) embodied the “Renaissance man.”  He was an architect, anatomist, sculptor, scientist, mathematician, musician, and painter.  He created masterpieces such as the ''Mona Lisa'', the famous portrait of a plain-looking woman with an enigmatic smile, and ''The Last Supper'', a fabulous wall painting of Christ and the Twelve Apostles which has not been well preserved.  He kept notebooks full of anatomical drawings such as the Vitruvian Man.  It is said that Leonardo could draw with one hand while at the same time painting with the other, and he wrote backwards in his notebooks, so they would have to be held up to a mirror to be read.  He was way ahead of his time and created conceptual designs for many devices such as a flying machine and an armored tank.  He was the first to come up with the ideas of the calculator and the use of solar power for energy.   

===Writers===

===Writers===

Dante (1265-1321) was an early Renaissance poet, born to a prominent family in Florence.  (The Italian town of Florence was considered the cradle of the Renaissance by 1425, but Venice and Rome became just as successful by the early 1500s.)  Dante wrote in the Italian language of the time (the local language, in this case Italian, is known as "the vernacular,") rather than in ancient Latin.  Dante described the path of a soul to salvation in “The Divine Comedy,” in which Dante travels through Hell (Inferno), Purgatory (Purgatorio), and Paradise (Paradiso).  In this journey, Dante is first guided by the Roman epic poet Virgil, and then he is later guided by a girl he loved as a youth, named Beatrice, who had tragically died in real life.  The account of Hell is known as ''Dante’s Inferno'', and it is frightful.  Throughout history Hell was emphasized far more than it is today, when almost no one mentions Hell in Church.

Dante (1265-1321) was an early Renaissance poet, born to a prominent family in Florence.  (The Italian town of Florence was considered the cradle of the Renaissance by 1425, but Venice and Rome became just as successful by the early 1500s.)  Dante wrote in the Italian language of the time (the local language, in this case Italian, is known as "the vernacular,") rather than in ancient Latin.  Dante described the path of a soul to salvation in ''The Divine Comedy'', in which Dante travels through Hell (Inferno), Purgatory (Purgatorio), and Paradise (Paradiso).  In this journey, Dante is first guided by the Roman epic poet Virgil, and then he is later guided by a girl he loved as a youth, named Beatrice, who had tragically died in real life.  The account of Hell is known as ''Dante’s Inferno'', and it is frightful.  Throughout history Hell was emphasized far more than it is today; almost no one mentions Hell in Church anymore now, and people may be worse off from the silence.

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) wrote ''The Prince'', which is an account of government by which the "end justifies the means" (in other words, a ruler can use any means to gain power and rule his state).  Even today the term "Machiavellian" is used to criticize a politician who spends all his time and effort on getting ahead and manipulating other people for his own gain.  A "Machiavellian" politician is a cunning person who will say or do anything if he thinks it brings him political benefit.  For centuries the reputation of Machiavelli was that he had been inspired by the devil.  Like other Renaissance artists and thinkers, Machiavelli lived in Florence.

Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527) wrote ''The Prince'', which is an account of government by which the "end justifies the means" (in other words, a ruler can use any means to gain power and rule his state).  Even today the term "Machiavellian" is used to criticize a politician who spends all his time and effort on getting ahead and manipulating other people for his own gain.  A "Machiavellian" politician is a cunning person who will say or do anything if he thinks it brings him political benefit.  For centuries the reputation of Machiavelli was that he had been inspired by the devil.  Like other Renaissance artists and thinkers, Machiavelli lived in Florence.