Changes

The European nations grew bigger and stronger in the 1800s and early 1900s.  These industrialized nations (Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and also the United States and Japan) sought natural resources and raw materials for their factories and new markets to sell their finished goods.  In England and Germany, people who believed in Darwin’s theory of evolution in the late 1800s and early 1900s felt a racial superiority and sought conquest (survival-of-the-fittest) to force other races into submission.

The European nations grew bigger and stronger in the 1800s and early 1900s.  These industrialized nations (Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, the Netherlands and also the United States and Japan) sought natural resources and raw materials for their factories and new markets to sell their finished goods.  In England and Germany, people who believed in Darwin’s theory of evolution in the late 1800s and early 1900s felt a racial superiority and sought conquest (survival-of-the-fittest) to force other races into submission.

=== Laissez-faire, or Regulation? ===

'''Laissez-faire, or Regulation?'''

The “laissez-faire” economists like Adam Smith wanted the government to stay out of business.  They felt that the “invisible hand” would produce the best outcome, and that supply and demand would be far better at allocating resources to their best use than government planning or regulation could.     

The “laissez-faire” economists like Adam Smith wanted the government to stay out of business.  They felt that the “invisible hand” would produce the best outcome, and that supply and demand would be far better at allocating resources to their best use than government planning or regulation could.     

==== Classical Economics ====

'''Classical Economics'''

Inspired by Adam Smith, classical economics is the economic theory emphasizing self-interest along with the operation of basic economic principles.  For example, classical economics predicts full employment if the government does not interfere by requiring minimum wage laws or other imposing other regulations.  In addition to Adam Smith, leading proponents of classical economics included David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus, Jean Baptiste Say, Jeremy Bentham, and John Stuart Mill.  They advocated “capitalism”, by which ownership of private property helps create profits for the owners and greater wealth for all of society.  We next describe several of the more important “classical economists.”

Inspired by Adam Smith, classical economics is the economic theory emphasizing self-interest along with the operation of basic economic principles.  For example, classical economics predicts full employment if the government does not interfere by requiring minimum wage laws or other imposing other regulations.  In addition to Adam Smith, leading proponents of classical economics included David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus, Jean Baptiste Say, Jeremy Bentham, and John Stuart Mill.  They advocated “capitalism”, by which ownership of private property helps create profits for the owners and greater wealth for all of society.  We next describe several of the more important “classical economists.”

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) was another British classical economist, but he was so pessimistic that he caused the entire field of economics to be called “the dismal science,” such that failure and collapse of the economy are supposed to be inevitable.  Malthus insisted that population increases by the geometric ratio but that the means of subsistence increases by only the arithmetic ratio, and thus population would outgrow the food supply and many would die (unless a war kills them first!).  This was completely false as even the poorest countries like India produce far more food than they can consume, and obesity is a bigger problem than hunger today.

Thomas Malthus (1766-1834) was another British classical economist, but he was so pessimistic that he caused the entire field of economics to be called “the dismal science,” such that failure and collapse of the economy are supposed to be inevitable.  Malthus insisted that population increases by the geometric ratio but that the means of subsistence increases by only the arithmetic ratio, and thus population would outgrow the food supply and many would die (unless a war kills them first!).  This was completely false as even the poorest countries like India produce far more food than they can consume, and obesity is a bigger problem than hunger today.

==== Utilitarianism ====

'''Utilitarianism'''

The last of the English classical economists was John Stuart Mill (1806-1873).  Homeschooled in an atheistic way by his father, Mill supported laissez-faire but with social reforms like redistribution of wealth, shorter working days, and regulation of monopolies.  Today he would be called a “moderate conservative” due to his support of some government controls over the economy.  Mill was ahead of his time in advocating the development of labor unions and farm cooperatives, and emancipation (voting) by women.   

The last of the English classical economists was John Stuart Mill (1806-1873).  Homeschooled in an atheistic way by his father, Mill supported laissez-faire but with social reforms like redistribution of wealth, shorter working days, and regulation of monopolies.  Today he would be called a “moderate conservative” due to his support of some government controls over the economy.  Mill was ahead of his time in advocating the development of labor unions and farm cooperatives, and emancipation (voting) by women.   

Mill advocated utilitarianism, a concept previously proposed by the atheist Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832).  Utilitarianism means that government should do whatever maximizes overall “utility” (benefits minus costs).  If killing one innocent man saves ten other lives, then utilitarianism would favor it.  Under utilitarianism there is no Christian morality, and it is replaced by comparing benefits versus costs.  Under this view government should experiment on embryonic stem cells today if benefits are greater than costs.<ref>Mill admitted that his longtime love for a particular woman, who was married to another man for many years, influenced his views about morality, which depart from the Christian view.</ref>  In another book ''On Liberty'', Mill advocated that “the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others,” which is also contrary to most Christian views.

Mill advocated utilitarianism, a concept previously proposed by the atheist Jeremy Bentham (1748-1832).  Utilitarianism means that government should do whatever maximizes overall “utility” (benefits minus costs).  If killing one innocent man saves ten other lives, then utilitarianism would favor it.  Under utilitarianism there is no Christian morality, and it is replaced by comparing benefits versus costs.  Under this view government should experiment on embryonic stem cells today if benefits are greater than costs.<ref>Mill admitted that his longtime love for a particular woman, who was married to another man for many years, influenced his views about morality, which depart from the Christian view.</ref>  In another book ''On Liberty'', Mill advocated that “the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilised community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others,” which is also contrary to most Christian views.

   

   

==== Socialism ====

'''Socialism'''

There were other new ideas during this time, not all of them good.  There was “utopian socialism,” which English and French philosophers proposed.  In England, Robert Owen (1771-1858) was the leading proponent, while in France Charles Fourier (1772-1837) was the leader.  They suggested the creation of self-contained communities in which the government owned the instruments of production (e.g., land and money) and politics was run by a voluntary, democratic process.   

There were other new ideas during this time, not all of them good.  There was “utopian socialism,” which English and French philosophers proposed.  In England, Robert Owen (1771-1858) was the leading proponent, while in France Charles Fourier (1772-1837) was the leader.  They suggested the creation of self-contained communities in which the government owned the instruments of production (e.g., land and money) and politics was run by a voluntary, democratic process.   

This led to the notion of “socialism” for everyone, not just self-contained communities, also developed as a so-called reform of capitalism.  Under socialism, government owns or controls many factors of production, including business property and money, and also controls the distribution of goods.  The invisible hand is replaced by government control, supposedly for the common good.  Workers are able to keep what they make as needed to survive.   

This led to the notion of “socialism” for everyone, not just self-contained communities, also developed as a so-called reform of capitalism.  Under socialism, government owns or controls many factors of production, including business property and money, and also controls the distribution of goods.  The invisible hand is replaced by government control, supposedly for the common good.  Workers are able to keep what they make as needed to survive.   

==== Communism ====

'''Communism'''

German thinkers named Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who were about to move to England, promoted the radical idea that all private property should be eliminated and that society would be better off under “communism”.  Karl Marx published these ideas in 1848 in a booklet called “The Communist Manifesto.”  “The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class [economic] struggles,” Marx declared in that book.  Later he developed a motto for communism: “From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.”  Marx predicted that the proletariat (working class) would overthrow the wealthy in a capitalistic society, and then establish a new system that would be socialism in its early stage and pure communism in its later stage.  

German thinkers named Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, who were about to move to England, promoted the radical idea that all private property should be eliminated and that society would be better off under “communism”.  Karl Marx published these ideas in 1848 in a booklet called “The Communist Manifesto.”  “The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class [economic] struggles,” Marx declared in that book.  Later he developed a motto for communism: “From each according to his ability, to each according to his needs.”  Marx predicted that the proletariat (working class) would overthrow the wealthy in a capitalistic society, and then establish a new system that would be socialism in its early stage and pure communism in its later stage.  

==== Evolution ====

'''Evolution'''

Another Englishman, Charles Darwin (1809-1882), promoted a theory of evolution.  Darwin’s own family considered him to be a disgrace, and felt that way even before he failed at an attempt to become a doctor.  His father later sought for him to become an Anglican parson (pastor), but Darwin abandoned the Christian faith instead.  He was unable to earn a degree in science and he struggled in scientific subjects such as physics (and math).  But after collecting some plant and animal specimens on a voyage (on the H.M.S. Beagle ship) around the world, in 1859 Darwin published a radical (and racist) book entitled ''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life''.  It proposed that species had evolved into complex forms of life over millions of years through “natural selection.”  Darwin had not observed any transitional forms (fossils reflecting evolution between species), and said his theory would fail if no transitional forms were found.  None were found, but his theory is still taught.   

Another Englishman, Charles Darwin (1809-1882), promoted a theory of evolution.  Darwin’s own family considered him to be a disgrace, and felt that way even before he failed at an attempt to become a doctor.  His father later sought for him to become an Anglican parson (pastor), but Darwin abandoned the Christian faith instead.  He was unable to earn a degree in science and he struggled in scientific subjects such as physics (and math).  But after collecting some plant and animal specimens on a voyage (on the H.M.S. Beagle ship) around the world, in 1859 Darwin published a radical (and racist) book entitled ''On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life''.  It proposed that species had evolved into complex forms of life over millions of years through “natural selection.”  Darwin had not observed any transitional forms (fossils reflecting evolution between species), and said his theory would fail if no transitional forms were found.  None were found, but his theory is still taught.   

Today, there is a strong correlation between belief in evolution and belief in a controlling government.  England was the strongest nation in the world at the time of Darwin, but its embrace of forms of socialism weakened it dramatically.  The United States, where the vast majority has always rejected Darwinism, rose from being a relatively weak country at the time of Darwin to becoming by far the strongest nation today.

Today, there is a strong correlation between belief in evolution and belief in a controlling government.  England was the strongest nation in the world at the time of Darwin, but its embrace of forms of socialism weakened it dramatically.  The United States, where the vast majority has always rejected Darwinism, rose from being a relatively weak country at the time of Darwin to becoming by far the strongest nation today.

=== Social Reform ===

'''Social Reform'''

Labor unions arose in the late 1800s, as John Stuart Mill suggested, in order to combat a perceived exploitation of workers.  “Collective bargaining” between workers (the “collective” side) and their opponents, the owners, became popular and continues to exist today.  Collective bargaining usually works like this:  the workers demand a raise in their salaries, or the workers will go on strike.  It was collective bargaining in the late 1900s that helped enable American baseball players to increase their salaries to astronomical levels.  Devastating strikes by auto workers in Detroit in the 1970s, demanding higher wages, had a huge effect on the competitiveness of the auto industry, and it is going bankrupt today.

Labor unions arose in the late 1800s, as John Stuart Mill suggested, in order to combat a perceived exploitation of workers.  “Collective bargaining” between workers (the “collective” side) and their opponents, the owners, became popular and continues to exist today.  Collective bargaining usually works like this:  the workers demand a raise in their salaries, or the workers will go on strike.  It was collective bargaining in the late 1900s that helped enable American baseball players to increase their salaries to astronomical levels.  Devastating strikes by auto workers in Detroit in the 1970s, demanding higher wages, had a huge effect on the competitiveness of the auto industry, and it is going bankrupt today.

In 1848, women suffragettes (supporters of the right to vote for women) met in Seneca Falls, New York, where they issued their own version of the Declaration of Independence called the “Declaration of Sentiments.”  Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott of the United States and the British Emmeline Pankhurst protested for suffrage.  Britain and the United States gave the right to vote to all women shortly after World War I.

In 1848, women suffragettes (supporters of the right to vote for women) met in Seneca Falls, New York, where they issued their own version of the Declaration of Independence called the “Declaration of Sentiments.”  Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott of the United States and the British Emmeline Pankhurst protested for suffrage.  Britain and the United States gave the right to vote to all women shortly after World War I.

=== Growth in Democracy===

'''Growth in Democracy'''

The industrial revolution led to the growth of cities, which in turn led to demands for greater amounts of democracy or “suffrage” (rights to vote).  In England the right to vote was limited to those who owned property until Parliament reduced these restrictions with the Reform Bill of 1832.  That reform also eliminated “rotten boroughs,” in which relatively few residents had the power to elect a representative with the same vote as much bigger districts.  Parliament then redistricted the cities to reflect their growing populations.

The industrial revolution led to the growth of cities, which in turn led to demands for greater amounts of democracy or “suffrage” (rights to vote).  In England the right to vote was limited to those who owned property until Parliament reduced these restrictions with the Reform Bill of 1832.  That reform also eliminated “rotten boroughs,” in which relatively few residents had the power to elect a representative with the same vote as much bigger districts.  Parliament then redistricted the cities to reflect their growing populations.

In France, its Third Republic ruled from 1875 until the German Occupation in 1940.

In France, its Third Republic ruled from 1875 until the German Occupation in 1940.

=== Technology and Science ===

'''Technology and Science'''

Capitalism and freedom unleashed a burst of creative activity in science and technology.  Beginning in the 1870s, Thomas Edison invented the light bulb, motion pictures and, even though he was mostly deaf, the phonograph.  In 1895 Guglielmo Marconi invented the radio, while  Nikola Tesla patented a wireless radio transmitter.<ref>But in 1943 the U.S. Supreme Court overturned Marconi's patent and held in favor of Nikola Tesla, who claimed he first developed radio technology.[http://inventors.about.com/od/rstartinventions/a/radio.htm]</ref>  Henry Ford perfected the assembly line and manufactured the first automobiles in the early 1900s.  Wilbur and Orville Wright flew the first gasoline-powered airplane in 1903.

Capitalism and freedom unleashed a burst of creative activity in science and technology.  Beginning in the 1870s, Thomas Edison invented the light bulb, motion pictures and, even though he was mostly deaf, the phonograph.  In 1895 Guglielmo Marconi invented the radio, while  Nikola Tesla patented a wireless radio transmitter.<ref>But in 1943 the U.S. Supreme Court overturned Marconi's patent and held in favor of Nikola Tesla, who claimed he first developed radio technology.[http://inventors.about.com/od/rstartinventions/a/radio.htm]</ref>  Henry Ford perfected the assembly line and manufactured the first automobiles in the early 1900s.  Wilbur and Orville Wright flew the first gasoline-powered airplane in 1903.