Difference between revisions of "Alger Hiss"

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[[Image:Hiss2.png|thumb|300px|right|Alger Hiss.<br>''Photo courtesy U.S. Bureau of Prisons'']]
 
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'''Alger Hiss''' (November 11, 1904 &ndash; November 15, 1996) was a high-ranking [[U.S. State Department]] official<ref>"Alger Hiss, a former [http://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2000/nr00-02.html high-ranking State Department official]"; and "[[#refBogdanor08|one of America's leading diplomats]]..."</ref> and Secretary-General of the [[United Nations]] founding conference.<ref>"The Secretary-General of the Conference was Alger Hiss... Secretary-General: Alger Hiss" [[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)</ref> He was [[#refHissAppellate|convicted of perjury]] in 1950 after [[#refBentleyGJ|denying involvement]] in [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage]]. Hiss partisans and many on the [[ideological]] [[Left]] for many years hotly disputed the jury’s verdict in the case,<ref>Francis P. Sempa, "[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2001_07-09/sempa_chambers/sempa_chambers.html Whittaker Chambers: A Centennary Reflection]," ''American Diplomacy'', July 2001. Hiss portrayed himself as a "liberal" rather than a communist, referring to "[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/liberalism.html liberals like myself]," writing that he had acquired a "liberal outlook" as a student, which was "strengthened and given focus at the Harvard Law School"; his work for Justice Holmes "increased my liberal convictions"; etc. He also had "[[#refBogdanor08|strong ties]] to the [http://encyclopedia.farlex.com/Alger+Hiss Democratic Party]." Thus for decades, many [[liberals]] and [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] portrayed Hiss as an [http://www.oup.com/us/catalog/general/subject/HistoryAmerican/Since1945/?view=usa&ci=9780195182552 innocent victim of McCarthyism], the victim of an [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/11.html elaborate frame-up], railroaded by [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/history.html the demagoguery] of [[Richard Nixon]] and the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. Cf. Tony Judt, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qjPwuBv-0PUC Reappraisals: Reflections on the Forgotten Twentieth Century]'' (Penguin Group, 2008), ISBN 1594201366, p. 301</ref> putting forward a variety of conspiracy theories.<ref>For an overview of these (mutually-contradictory) conspiracy theories see the appendix, "Conspiracy Theories," in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]].</ref> The '''[http://www.conservapedia.com/Legacy_of_Alger_Hiss#Scholarly_consensus overwhelming consensus]''' among historians today is that Hiss was guilty.
 
  
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==Early life==
 
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Alger Hiss was born November 11, 1904, in [[Baltimore]], [[Maryland]]<ref>"Mr. Hiss. I was born in Baltimore. Md., on November 11, 1904." [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 642 (PDF 152)</ref> to a financially comfortable upper-middle-class<ref>"Alger Hiss was born... in an [[#refNoe1|upper-middle-class]]... family... The Hiss family was [[#refNoe1|financially comfortable]]..." The Hisses were "prominent, respected people. They kept their own horse and carriage, and on occasion [Alger's father] would hire a private railroad car for a family outing.... they knew everyone they wanted to know in Baltimore, they belonged to the best clubs, and they were recognized wherever they went." ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 34) Contrary to [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/11/30/bookend/bookend.html ex-Communist] ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 3) Murray Kempton's oft-repeated claim that Hiss was a "child of shabby gentility," ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17), Hiss protested that the economic circumstances of his childhood were "not particularly shabby." ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Young Alger went [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-prophecy.html to camp] ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 [PDF 153]) [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799516,00.html in Maine]; he later participated "in the usual round of activities enjoyed by affluent college students of his time" ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9); among his hobbies were tennis and horseback riding. ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248)</ref> [http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300038187 WASP]<ref>"Hiss was... not only a goy but a WASP!" ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 20). Hiss testified: "I have been an Episcopalian all my life" ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 649 [PDF 159]); "Alger's mother claimed descent from the Earl of Leicester and, on her mother's side, a leading Baltimore family, the Grundys." ([[#refMorrow05|Morrow 2005]]: 248) Cf. Aaron Beim and Gary Alan Fine, "[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/117985047/abstract The Cultural Frameworks of Prejudice: Reputational Images and the Postwar Disjuncture of Jews and Communism]," ''The Sociological Quarterly'', Vol. 48, Issue 3 (Summer 2007): 373-397.</ref> family. His father, an executive with a wholesale dry goods firm,<ref>[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. This [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/dry%20goods contradicts the claim] of Murray Kempton that Hiss's father was "a wholesale grocer." ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17)</ref> committed [[suicide]] by [[#refMorrow96|slashing]] his throat with a razor when Alger was just two years old.<ref>[[#refScott96|Scott 1996]]. According to the [[#refBarron01|personal Web site of Hiss's son]], Alger's father died on [[#refTonyTimeline|April 7, 1907]]&mdash;this in contrast to Kempton's claim that Hiss's father "committed suicide when Alger was nine." ([[#refKempton04|Kempton 2004]]: 17) As G. Edward White puts it (somewhat charitably), Kempton's version of events is "not quite accurate." ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 4) Susan Jacoby also gets this wrong, writing of "the suicide of his father (when Alger was only five)" ([[#refJacoby09|Jacoby 2009]]: 62), an error she repeated on [[#refQA|C-SPAN]].</ref> When Hiss was 25, his [[sister]] Mary Ann also [[#refMorrow96|committed suicide]], by drinking a bottle of [http://farm1.static.flickr.com/118/261588419_6b641c8815_o.jpg Lysol].<ref>"....Mary Ann... had swallowed a bottle of Lysol, killing herself." [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 5</ref> Two years earlier, Alger's older brother Bosley, a ''Baltimore Sun'' reporter,<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 6</ref> had died at age 26 from a [[kidney]] disorder attributed to excessive [[alcohol]] consumption.<ref>"Bos.... drank a lot." ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); "He was undisciplined in habits of...drink." [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 167; "Bos.... contracted Bright's disease, an alcohol-induced kidney ailment...." ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 11); "Hiss's older brother Bosley, died when he was in his early twenties of Bright's disease, a kidney disorder aggravated by Bosley's [[#refNoe1|overindulgence in alcohol]]." Cf. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 383</ref>
 
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===Johns Hopkins University===
 
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As a result of his [[father]]'s [[death]], Alger [[inheritance|inherited]] $10,000,<ref>"...provided a $10,000 bequest to each of the Hiss children..." [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9</ref> the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $200,000]] today. After graduation from [http://www.baltimorecitycollege.us/ Baltimore City College] and a year at [[Massachusetts]]' [[Powder Point Academy]] and the [[Maryland Institute of Art]],<ref>"1921-1922: Attended Powder Point Academy, Duxbury, Mass., and Maryland Institute of Art." ([[#refZeligs80|Zeligs Papers]]) A visiting artist at the Maryland Institute of Art during this era was [http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html John Sloan], former editor of the [[Communist]] magazine ''[http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Masses_1914_John_Sloan.jpg The Masses]'' (John Loughery, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eGWcHAAACAAJ John Sloan: Painter and Rebel]'' [New York: H. Holt, 1997] ISBN 0805052216, p. 177), which would change its name to ''[[New Masses]]'' in 1926 and, ironically, be edited by [[Whittaker Chambers]] starting in 1931. Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM, p. 253</ref> Hiss attended [[Baltimore]]'s elite<ref>"Johns Hopkins was an elite university, both socially and academically." [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 9</ref> [[Johns Hopkins University]],<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)</ref> where he was voted "[http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisstruman.jpg best hand-shaker]" in his class.<ref>[[#refRovere96|Rovere 1996]]: 156; Cf. [http://www.newyorker.com/online/blogs/backissues/2010/02/eighty-five-from-the-archive-richard-h-rovere.html Eighty-Five from the Archive: Richard H. Rovere] (excerpt from ''[http://www.newyorker.com The New Yorker]'', [http://archives.newyorker.com/default.aspx?iid=18616&startpage=page0000103 May 13, 1950]); Evan Thomas, "[http://www.newsweek.com/id/103447 An American Melodrama]," ''Newsweek'', November 25, 1996</ref> As an [[undergraduate]], Hiss's favorite [[instructor|instructors]] included the [[Socialist]] [[Broadus Mitchell]] and [[Stalinist]] [[José Robles]],<ref>[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 310 (PDF 4). Robles would later go fight in Spain under the [[Soviets]]; Hiss, who apparently knew Robles well enough to spend time at his home ([[#refTHiss77|T. Hiss 1977]]: 37-38) would say he too considered joining ([[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 104) the forces characterized as "[[Stalin]]'s foreign legion." (Herbert Romerstein, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=D5koGQAACAAJ Heroic Victims: Stalin's Foreign Legion in the Spanish Civil War]'' [Washington: Council for the Defense of Freedom, 1994] ISBN 9994812505). "[T]he [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]] and the Lincolns' willingness to [http://www.alba-valb.org/resources/lessons/world-war-ii-letters-from-the-abraham-lincoln-brigade/before-pearl-harbor change their position on the antifascist struggle in order to conform to Soviet policy] would forever cast a shadow on their legacy, as it would with the other elements of the Communist Left."</ref> while he was drawn to the work of (among others) the [[atheist]] [[H.L. Mencken]], socialists [[George Bernard Shaw]], [[Maxwell Anderson]] and [[Sinclair Lewis]], and the [[Communist]] [[Theodore Dreiser]]<ref>[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 51-52</ref> (the last two also [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,881224,00.html famous atheists]). Hiss was no "Hopkins Babbit,"<ref>A misspelled reference to the [http://www.novelguide.com/a/discover/nfs_19/nfs_19_00013.html reactionary, conservative] [http://www.websters-online-dictionary.org/definitions/babbitt bourgeois] George F. Babbitt, of the [http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1156 eponymous 1922 novel] by socialist [[Sinclair Lewis]]</ref> according to his class yearbook; he could discourse on a wide range of topics "from Soviets to styles" with "irresistible logic and rhetoric."<ref>"[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/1926yrbk.pdf Alger Hiss]," ''Hullabaloo'' (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University, 1926), p. 116 (PDF p. 3)</ref>
 
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===Harvard Law School===
 
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After graduating in 1926, Hiss went on to [[Harvard Law School]], along with [[Noel Field]] and [[Laurence Duggan]]. There he resumed his friendship with boyhood friend [[Henry Collins]] and served on the ''[[Harvard Law Review]]'' with editor [[Lee Pressman]].<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153). Pressman would eventually [[testify]] that he had been a member of the "[[Ware group]]," an underground group of [[Communist]]s in the Federal government. ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]; cf. [[#refIPR52|S. Rpt. 2050]], Appendix: 5503 [Exhibit No. 1402]); Pressman would also corroborate Chambers' identification of [[Nathan Witt|Witt]], [[John Abt]] and [[Charles Kramer]] as members of this [[Communist]] cell ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612), and admit under oath that he recognized Chambers. ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 553)</ref> Hiss became a protégé of [[Felix Frankfurter]], who was at the time the [http://www.theatlantic.com/unbound/flashbks/oj/frankff.htm leading champion] of the [[conviction|convicted]] [[murder|murderers]] [[Sacco and Vanzetti]],<ref>Felix Frankfurter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GiV9cR6277UC The Case of Sacco and Vanzetti: A Critical Analysis for Lawyers and Laymen]'' (Buffalo: Wm. S. Hein & Co., 2003) ISBN 157588805X</ref> [[revolution|revolutionary]] [[terrorist|terrorists]] who had become a Communist<ref>Stephen Koch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YIoFAQAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Double Lives: Stalin, Willi Munzenberg and the Seduction of the Intellectuals]'' (New York: Enigma Books, rev. ed. 2004) ISBN 1929631200, pp. 31-39, 373 n. 23</ref> ''cause célèbre'',<ref>John F. Neville, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PXn7LbZRK2IC Twentieth-Century Cause Celebre: Sacco, Vanzetti, and the Press, 1920-1927]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0275977838 p. 101. Hiss's Harvard classmate, fellow State Department official and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]] Noel Field would later write, "The shock of the Sacco-Vanzetti executions drove me leftward." ([[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 199)</ref> and whom Alger Hiss would later [http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/individualProfile.asp?indid=2278 emulate].<ref>New evidence [http://hnn.us/articles/4527.html suggests] that Sacco and Vanzetti were [http://web.archive.org/web/20090510093435/http://www.cbc.ca/arts/story/2006/01/28/uptonsinclair-boston.html guilty]; cf. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133</ref>
 
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==Early Career==
 
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[[Image:Wallstreetbmb.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Wall Street bombing, 1920, attributed to [http://www.crimemagazine.com/916-terrorists-bomb-wall-street Galleanists]. ''World-Telegram photo. Source: [http://www.fbi.gov/news/stories/2007/september/wallstreet_091307 Federal Bureau of Investigation]/[http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.pnp/cph.3c32521 Library of Congress]'']][[Sacco and Vanzetti]] had been members of a [http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/17/nyregion/after-1920-blast-opposite-never-forget-no-memorials-wall-st-for-attack-that.html?pagewanted=all terrorist]<ref>According to Paul Avrich, a [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/02/24/nyregion/24avrich.html historian of the anarchist movement], the 1920 Wall Street bombing that killed more than 30 people was the work of the Galleanist Mario Buda. [[#refAvrich05|Avrich 2005]]: 133. Cf. [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 58; Mike Davis, "[http://motherjones.com/print/11655 The Poor Man's Air Force: A History of the Car Bomb (Part 1)]," ''Mother Jones'', April 12, 2006</ref> group known as the [http://www.inthesetimes.com/article/3100/the_lessons_of_sacco_and_vanzetti/ Galleanists],<ref>[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 59-60</ref> which was responsible for the [http://www.slate.com/id/3135/ May Day 1919 attempted bombing] of [http://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9406E3D61238EE32A25752C0A9639C946896D6CF a number] of [http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/database/article_display.cfm?HHID=438 public figures],<ref>[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 146</ref> including [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] Justice [[Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.]]<ref>[[#refAvrich96|Avrich 1996]]: 143</ref> Ironically, when Hiss graduated from law school in 1929, [[Felix Frankfurter|Frankfurter]] got him the [[#refTime2.13.50|coveted]] job of [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html law clerk to Holmes]. Influential as Frankfurter was, Hiss said he was probably even [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/daynight.html more influenced by Holmes], whom [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissholmes.jpg Hiss admired] as "a [[skeptic]] of the first order" who "denied the [[existence]] of [[God]]."<ref>[[#refSmith76|Smith 1976]]: 58. It has been suggested that Hiss himself was [http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1374/article_detail.asp an atheist].</ref>
 
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In violation of a condition of this employment,<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 24</ref> Hiss [[marriage|married]] the former Mrs. [http://www.lib.utexas.edu/taro/uthrc/00330/hrc-00330.html#bioghist Thayer Hobson] (''née'' Priscilla Fansler), a supporter of perennial [[Socialist]] Party [[presidential]] candidate [[Norman Thomas]].<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 457</ref> Hiss had met her on a transatlantic cruise when he was nineteen,<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 11</ref> but since then she'd had a [[marriage]], a [[Mexican]] [[divorce]],<ref>[[#refZeligs80|Meyer Zeligs Papers]] (October 13, 1963), Harvard Law School Library Special Collections, cited in Ivan Chen, [http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1000&context=ivan_chen Alger Hiss, 1926-1929], p. 31</ref> a pregnancy by a married man and an [[abortion]].<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 158-159</ref> Hiss went on to the prestigious [[Boston]] [http://img.tfd.com/WEAL/weal_05_img0977.jpg law firm] of [http://www.choate.com/home.php Choate, Hall & Stewart].<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 97. This firm was connected to former Ambassador to the [[United Kingdom]] Joseph Hodges Choate, whose family founded the the [http://www.forbes.com/2009/04/06/america-elite-schools-leadership-prep_slide_2.html elite] [[New England]] prep school then known as The Choate School (now [http://www.choate.edu/ Choate Rosemary Hall]).</ref>
 
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[[Image:American-cities-125.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Bombing of the Federal building, Chicago, moments after [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobblies]] were convicted there, 1918. ''Source: National Archives and Records Administration'']][[#refMHSL|Two years later]], Hiss followed his wife to [[New York City|New York]], where she had obtained a grant from the [http://www.carnegiefoundation.org/ Carnegie Foundation], sister organization of the [http://www.carnegieendowment.org/ Carnegie Endowment], of which Alger would later serve as president. Hiss joined the [http://www.legalaffairs.org/issues/September-October-2005/toa_sepoct05.msp white shoe firm]<ref>Nancy Lisagor and Frank Lipsius, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=VHohAQAAIAAJ A Law Unto Itself: The Untold Story of the Law Firm Sullivan & Cromwell]'' (Paragon House, 1989) ISBN 1557782393, p. 234</ref> Cotton, Franklin, Wright and Gordon.<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27. This firm is now known as [http://www.cahill.com/index.html Cahill, Gordon and Reindell, LLP]).</ref>
 
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During this period, Hiss became "[[#refChronology|radicalized]]":<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208</ref> In 1930, he made a coy reference to [[#refNYT9.5.1918|the terrorist]]<ref>Moments after the sentencing of [[#refNARAcities|95 Wobbies]] (including Haywood) at the Chicago Federal Building in 1918, a bomb ripped through the building, [[#refNYT9.5.1918|killing four]]. Charles Howard McCormick, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Vcvhrdr6drgC Hopeless Cases: The Hunt for the Red Scare Terrorist Bombers]'' (Lanham, Md.: University Press of America, 2005) ISBN 0761831320, pp. 31-31</ref> [[Industrial Workers of the World]], writing to Priscilla, "[D]id thee call thyself a [[Industrial Workers of the World|Wobbly]] with an [[Industrial Workers of the World|I.W.W.]] tongue in thy [[socialist|socialistic]] (I couldn't bring myself to write '[[Communist|Communistic]]') cheek?" Suggesting that an article questioning the [[legitimacy]] of the existing “[[capitalist]] order”<ref>Archibald MacLeish, “To the Young Men of Wall Street,” ''Saturday Review'', January 16, 1932</ref> did not go far enough, Hiss wrote to Priscilla in 1932, “Has thee seen [[Archibald MacLeish]]'s article on [[capitalism]] in last week's ''Saturday Review''? [[Felix Frankfurter|Felix]] says it is soft thinking after [[Edmund Wilson|Wilson]].”<ref>Tony Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=14B3AAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 The View From Alger's Window]'' (New York: Vintage Books, 2000) ISBN 0375701281, pp. 140-141</ref>
 
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By that year, Priscilla [[#refNoe9|had registered]] as a member of the Socialist Party,<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 85</ref> and was an [[#refChronology|active member]] of American Labor Associates;<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 86-87</ref> Alger, meanwhile (together with [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]]),<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 27</ref> [[#refChronology|had joined]] the International Juridical Association (IJA),<ref>[[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 445</ref> which "consistently followed the [[Communist Party]] line."<ref>"[http://ia700408.us.archive.org/10/items/reportonnational1950unit/reportonnational1950unit_bw.pdf Report on the National Lawyers Guild, legal bulwark of the Communist Party]," Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (1950), p. 12 (PDF p. 18)</ref>
 
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==New Deal==
 
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===Agricultural Adjustment Administration===
 
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[[Image:Ukraine-famine-holodomor.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Victims of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror-Famine]], Ukraine, 1933. ''Source: Andrew Gregorovich, "[http://infoukes.com/history/famine/gregorovich/ Black Famine in Ukraine 1932-33: A Struggle for Existence]," ''Forum: A Ukrainian Review'' No. 24 (1974)'']]In 1933, Frankfurter sent Hiss a [http://www.salon.com/books/feature/1999/06/01/hiss/index.html telegram]<ref>[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 52</ref> strongly urging him<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 644 (PDF 154)</ref> to join the administration of [[President]] [[Franklin Delano Roosevelt]], a [[liberal]]<ref>The words [[liberal]] and [[liberalism]] "entered the language of [[American]] politics in the early years of [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s administration, and afterwards they stood for the viewpoint of the [[New Deal]]." Paul Roazen, "Introduction," Louis Hartz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0dFEHUgqqbkC The Necessity of Choice: Nineteenth-Century Political Thought]'' (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1990) ISBN 0887383262, p. 6</ref> [[Democratic Party|Democrat]].<ref>"...[[Franklin Roosevelt]] was a [[Democrat]]." Peter W. Colby, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Gsr9rgvClpwC New York State Today: Politics, Government, Public Policy]'' (Albany, N.Y.: SUNY Press, 1985) ISBN 0873959604, p. 52</ref>
 
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[[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] had already gotten into the government, in the [[Agricultural Adjustment Administration]] (AAA).
 
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That [[New Deal]]<ref>Roosevelt and his supporters saw the New Deal in revolutionary and dictatorial terms: [[First Lady]] [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] “lamented that the nation lacked a [http://www.slate.com/id/2000099/entry/1003296/ benevolent dictator] to force through reforms." [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]] Walter Lippmann told Roosevelt, "The situation is critical, Franklin. You may have no alternative but to assume [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924464,00.html dictatorial powers]"; in his influential column, Lippmann added that the use of "'dictatorial powers,' if that is the name for it&mdash;[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/22273 is essential].'" The ''New York Herald Tribune'' approved FDR's inauguration with the headline "[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5525748 FOR DICTATORSHIP IF NECESSARY]." In response to a hit [[Hollywood]] [http://allmovie.com/work/gabriel-over-the-white-house-19092 movie] featuring as hero a President who “dissolves Congress, creates an army of the unemployed, and lines up his enemies before a [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/05/07/books/chapters/0507-1st-alter.html?pagewanted=all firing squad],” FDR wrote "I think it is an intensely interesting picture and should do much to help." Jonathan Alter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ASmlaOHQNawC The Defining Moment: FDR's Hundred Days and the Triumph of Hope]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2007) ISBN 0743246012, p. 185</ref> agency was the brainchild of FDR's [[Secretary of Agriculture]] ([http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=W000077 and future] [[Vice president|Vice President]]), so-called "[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F4061FF83C5C16738DDDAB0994DB405B838FF1D3 farm dictator]" [[Henry Wallace]], who was reportedly "most impressed" with [http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/common/generic/VP_Henry_Wallace.htm Soviet collective farming]. Wallace would run for [[President]] in 1948 on the [[Communist]]-inspired<ref>The Progressive Party was in fact a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=11398 creation of the Communist Party], growing out of [[CPUSA]] General Secretary Eugene Dennis' February 12, 1946 order "to establish in time for the 1948 elections a national third party." Eugene Dennis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=TafcYQEACAAJ What America Faces]'' (New York: New Century Publishers, 1946), pp. 37-38. Cf. Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=yeoSSLzr-jAC The vital center: the politics of freedom]'' (Transaction Publishers, 1997) ISBN 1560009896, p. 115; Arthur Meier Schlesinger, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LLyNX6hMDCIC A Life in the Twentieth Century: Innocent Beginnings, 1917-1950]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2000) ISBN 0618219250, pp. 455-456; Karl M. Schmidt, ''[http://ia700307.us.archive.org/34/items/henryawallace006268mbp/henryawallace006268mbp.pdf Henry A. Wallace: Quixotic Crusade 1948]'' (Syracuse University Press, 1960), p. 265 (PDF p. 291). In 1955, the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] cited the Progressive Party on its list of subversive organizations, identified as [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive a Communist front].</ref> [http://www.joincalifornia.com/party/Independent%20Progressive Progressive Party] ticket, finally recanting [http://www.cnn.com/2008/LIVING/wayoflife/05/09/almost.great.men/index.html his support] for the [[Soviet Union]]<ref>[[Henry Wallace|Wallace]] said if he were to become President, he would appoint [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] [[#refBronner98|Laurence Duggan as Secretary of State]]. Had [[FDR]] died [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/lifetimes/whouse.htm 82 days] earlier, Wallace would indeed have become President.</ref> in 1952.<ref>Henry Agard Wallace, “Where I Was Wrong.” ''This Week'', September 2, 1952</ref>
 
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[[Image:Woman Child.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Mother of seven children without food, California, ca. February 1936. ''[http://www.loc.gov/rr/print/list/128_migm.html Farm Security Administration Collection], Library of Congress'']]At the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Holodomor|Terror Famine]] (during which the [[USSR|Soviets]] killed some 14 million<ref>[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]: 306</ref>  people through [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/04/26/AR2008042602039_pf.html collectivization of agriculture]), the AAA [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/9551/Agricultural-Adjustment-Administration curtailed U.S. farm production] in order to [http://www.econbrowser.com/archives/2007/01/the_new_deal_an.html drive up food prices] in the depths of the [[Great Depression]].<ref>“During the Great Depression of the 1930s, agricultural price support programs led to vast amounts of food being deliberately destroyed at a time when malnutrition was a serious problem in the United States.... For example, the federal government bought 6 million hogs in 1933 alone and destroyed them. Huge amounts of farm produce were plowed under, in order to keep it off the market and maintain prices at the officially fixed level, and vast amounts of milk were poured down the sewers for the same reason. Meanwhile, many American children were suffering from diseases caused by malnutrition.” (Thomas Sowell, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gbfTLG_HmGEC Basic Economics]'' [New York: Basic Books, 2007] 3rd Ed., ISBN 0465002609, p. 56) As Gene Smiley, emeritus professor of economics at Marquette University, writes in ''[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/GreatDepression.html The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics]'': "Reduced production, of course, is what happens in depressions, and it never made sense to try to get the country out of depression by reducing production further. In its zeal, the administration apparently did not consider the elementary impossibility of raising all real wage rates and all real prices." [http://www.economics.hawaii.edu/research/seminars/02-03/02-21.pdf One] [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/421169 study] found that such [[New Deal]] policies prolonged the [[Great Depression]] by about [http://newsroom.ucla.edu/portal/ucla/FDR-s-Policies-Prolonged-Depression-5409.aspx seven years].</ref>
 
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In response to a query about candidates for employment at AAA, [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] wrote, "I have talked to Alger Hiss and [fellow IJA member]<ref>Martin Dies, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bIVCVinv63AC The Trojan horse in America]'' (Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099452, p. 92</ref> [[Nathan Witt|Nat Witt]] who are considering" taking posts at AAA. Hiss would later deny under oath that he had discussed the position with Pressman,<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 133</ref> but he soon got a position as assistant general counsel to the AAA. There he met [[#refBC07|the Communist]]<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 94</ref> [[Harold Ware]],<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 652 (PDF 162)</ref> son of [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss8_bioghist.html American Communist Party founder] [[Ella Reeve Bloor|"Mother" Bloor]]. Ware had recently returned from several years in the [[Soviet Union]], where he had been instrumental in the organization of [http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/archives/ukra.html collective farms].<ref>James C. Scott, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PqcPCgsr2u0C Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have Failed]'' (Yale University Press, 1998) ISBN 0300078153, pp. 200-201. [[Harold Ware|Ware]] reportedly "tricked" [[USSR|Soviet]] peasants into collective farms. (Deborah Kay Fitzgerald, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nQMNb6nGmPsC Every Farm a Factory: The Industrial Ideal in American Agriculture]'' [New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003] ISBN 0300088132, p. 161). "As the Soviet archives reveal, the experiment was a dystopian nightmare. Ware and [[Jessica Smith|Smith]] lured a group of unenthusiastic peasants into their grasp and proceeded to abuse them in a [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=14209 brutal fashion]." For this Ware received a [http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1922/oct/20b.htm commendation from Lenin], praise repeated by [[Stalin]] (J.V. Stalin, ''[http://www.marx2mao.com/PDFs/StWorks11.pdf Works, Vol. 11: 1928-March 1929]'' [Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, 1954], pp. 195-196.) Back in the U.S., he founded the [[#refBerle|Communist-front]] Farm Research Incorporated, which published ''[[Facts for Farmers]]'',  a [[List of Communist publications|communist publication]] intended to influence decision makers in the Agricultural Department. [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 92-93</ref> Ware recruited Hiss<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 30</ref> into a secret Communist Party cell within AAA<ref>[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16) </ref> known as the [[Ware group]].<ref>Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes and Fridrikh Igorevich Firsov, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=MBHSY0bCFWoC The Secret World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1996) ISBN 0300068557, p. 96</ref>
 
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Other members of this cell included Hiss's Harvard friends [[Henry Collins|Collins]] and [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] (who would join the [[Communist Party]] about this time),<ref>[[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 (PDF 16) </ref> as well as [[Nathan Witt|Witt]] (who would be identified as a fellow [[Communist]] by Pressman),<ref>[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 612</ref> [[#refCook91|secret Communist]] [[John Abt]]<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 643 (PDF 153)</ref> and [[USSR|Soviet]] spy<ref>[[#refSpies09|Hanes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 279-282</ref> [[Charles Kramer]]. Abt would later admit having been a member of the [[Ware group]],<ref>John J. Abt with Michael Myerson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9REaIPPh4k4C Advocate and Activist: Memoirs of an American Communist Lawyer]'' (University of Illinois Press, 1993) ISBN 0252020308, pp. 40-41. Abt would become [[#refCook91|chief counsel]] for the Communist Party. In 1950-53, Abt would unsuccessfully defend the [[Communist Party]] before the [[Subversive Activities Control Board]], which found that the party was required by law to register as an agent of a foreign power (83d Cong., 1st sess., Document No. 41, Subversive Activities Control Board, [http://ia600409.us.archive.org/22/items/herbertbrownellj1956unit/herbertbrownellj1956unit_bw.pdf Herbert Brownell, Jr. Attorney General of the United States, Petitioner vs. Communist Party of the United States of America, Respondent: Report of the Board], April 23, 1953 [Washington: United States Government Printing Office: 1953], pp. 1, 132 [PDF pp. 9, 140]); he would later argue unsuccessfully before the [[Supreme Court]] for the repeal of the [[#refCook91|McCarran Act]]. Arrested for [http://www.nytimes.com/1993/09/09/books/books-of-the-times-kennedy-assassination-answers.html the assassination of President] [[John F. Kennedy]] in 1963, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm self-proclaimed "Marxist"] (Warren Commission Hearings, CE 2240, [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh25/html/WC_Vol25_0085b.htm FBI transcript: Lee Oswald to the Socialist Party of America Vol. XXV, p. 140], October 3, 1956) [[Lee Harvey Oswald]] would request Abt as his attorney. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0154a.htm Testimony of Harry D. Holmes], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 299-300. Cf. [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh7/html/WC_Vol7_0168b.htm Testimony of H. Louis Nichols], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. VII, pp. 328-329; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wcvols/wh10/html/WC_Vol10_0062b.htm Testimony of John J. Abt], Warren Commission Hearings, Vol. XX, p. 116; [http://www.aarclibrary.org/publib/jfk/wc/wr/html/WCReport_0315b.htm Report of Capt. J.W. Fritz, Dallas Police Department], p. 8, Report of the President's Commission on the Assassination of President Kennedy, p. 606</ref> as would [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch01057 Communist writer] Hope Hale Davis, who would write that its meetings involved discussions of how to "achieve promotion&mdash;a primary goal," or whether to "try to influence policy," as well as "secret directives&mdash;for purloining official documents," etc.;<ref>[[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 41. According to Davis, the Ware group “was used, [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/nav2.html to my knowledge], for stealing documents from government agencies.” Her husband, she said, regularly supplied “a party contact confidential information from his job.” Davis added, “Everyone in Hal Ware's group had accepted the directive to get whatever we could for the party to use in any way it saw fit.” Eric Jacobs et al., "Arguments (New and Old) About the Hiss Case," [http://books.google.com/books?id=DA4HAQAAIAAJ''Encounter'', vol. 52] (March 1979), p. 87</ref> This influx of radicals caused AAA administrator George Peek to resign in protest, writing:
 
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{{cquote|A plague of young lawyers settled on Washington. They all claimed to be friends of somebody or other and mostly of Felix Frankfurter and Jerome Frank<ref>"....Jerome Frank, the leading liberal judge on the court; Jerome Frank, the intellectual leader of the New Deal and architect of its most progressive legislation; Jerome Frank, the idol of young progressive law students and leader of the liberals when he taught law at Yale, who had led the fight against the conservatism of the old-guard faculty...." Arthur Kinoy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8IQaAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Rights on Trial: The Odyssey of a People's Lawyer]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1983) ISBN 0674770137, p. 97</ref>... in the legal division were formed the plans which eventually turned the AAA from a device to aid the farmers into a device to introduce the collectivist system of agriculture into this country.<ref>George N. Peek with Samuel Crowther, “In and Out: the Experiences of the First AAA Administrator,” ''The Saturday Evening Post'', May 16, 1936, p. 5</ref>}}
 
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Even before the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] would learn of [[Whittaker Chambers]]' charges, one of Hiss's colleagues at the AAA<ref>Apparently Leonore Fuller, sister of Secretary of State James Byrnes, who would later force Hiss out of the State Department. [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/byrnes.htm James F. Byrnes Papers], Finding Aid: [http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mss090Byrnes/Mss90-02ByrnesSenatorial.pdf Series 2: Senatorial Series, 1924-1941; bulk 1933-1941], p. 1 ([http://media.clemson.edu/library/special_collections/findingaids/manuscripts/mssindex.htm Manuscript Collections], [http://www.clemson.edu/ Clemson University] [http://www.clemson.edu/library/ Library]. Cf. "Leonora Fuller" in Morton Levitt and Michael Levitt, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=oiN4AAAAMAAJ A tissue of lies: Nixon vs. Hiss]'' (McGraw-Hill, 1979) ISBN 0070373973, p. 267</ref> would tip off FBI investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not Communists.<ref>FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)</ref> In February 1935, the "[[#refChronology|radicals]]" [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,748453,00.html were "purged"] from AAA. According to [[New Deal|New Dealer]] [http://lts.brandeis.edu/research/archives-speccoll/findingguides/xml/jackson.html Gardner Jackson]:<ref>Five years later, when [[HUAC]] would expand its probes to include [[Nazi]] allies -- including (during the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]) [[Communist]]s -- Jackson would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,883947,00.html pay American Fascist David Mayne for forged letters] in a failed attempt to smear the committee.</ref>
 
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{{cquote|Late in the day of our dismissal Wallace sent word that he would see two of the people on the dismissal list. Jerome Frank and a member of his legal staff, Alger Hiss, were delegated for the interview. Wallace haltingly greeted them (and, through them, others on the list) as "the best fighters in a good cause" he had ever worked with. But he said that he had to [http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/194808/henry-wallace fire them].}}
 
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As it turned out, Jackson, Frank and Pressman were indeed fired&mdash;but [[#refChronology|Hiss was not]]. "Alger must have known at least a week before the purge that it was coming," said Jackson. "He undoubtedly told Pressman, and Lee told him what to do in order to remain in the Department as his pipeline."<ref>[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60</ref>
 
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Frank, believing Hiss to be closely linked to a coterie of Communist lawyers at the agency, would later refuse to appear as a character witness for him.<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43</ref> According to reporters Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky (who covered the trials for ''Newsweek'' and the ''New York World-Telegram'', respectively): "When Hiss's lawyers approached a well-known jurist to ask him if he would appear as a character witness [for Hiss]...he said tartly: 'I have no way of knowing whether or not Mr. Hiss was ever a Communist. But as to his character&mdash;Mr. Hiss has no character.'"<ref>[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 60. [[Whittaker Chambers]] would testify that Hiss had "a great gentleness and sweetness of character," ([[#refHUAC8-7-48|HUAC August 7, 1948]]), although he would later admit glimpsing a "strange savagery" in Hiss's laughter at "the horrible old women of Baltimore" ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 363), and "the obvious pleasure he took in the most simple and brutal references to the President's physical condition as a symbol of the middle-class breakdown." (Hiss was one of the few insiders who knew that [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was wheelchair-bound. See, e.g., Hugh Gregory Gallagher, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kFpgOgAACAAJ FDR's Splendid Deception: The Moving Story of Roosevelt's Massive Disability and the Intense Efforts to Conceal it from the Public]'' [St. Petersburg, Fla.: Vandamere Press, 1999] ISBN 0918339502. To Hiss, according to one scholar, the ailing FDR epitomized "feeble, illegitimate authority that ought to die or disappear but refuses to do so." Alan Fraser Davis, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8bo8AAAAIAAJ Skills, Outlooks and Passions: A Psychoanalytic Contribution to the Study of Politics]'' [Cambridge University Press, 1980] ISBN 0521293499, p. 449, n. 13) That savagery took a distinctly political form, as when Chambers raised with Hiss the issue of the bloody [[Moscow]] [[Great purge|purge trials]]: according to Chambers, Hiss replied coldly: "Yes, Stalin plays for keeps, doesn’t he?" ([[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 41) Likewise, when reminded that the prominent [http://mises.org/journals/scholar/MacKenzie7.pdf Democratic Socialist] [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/273508/Irving-Howe Irving Howe] had written that he was persuaded of Hiss's guilt, Hiss snapped, "Howe? I don't consider him on the left." [[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]</ref>
 
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[[Henry Collins|Collins]] would refuse to testify on grounds of potential [[self-incrimination]],<ref>Mr. Stripling. Are you a member of the Communist Party?
 
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Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me.
 
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...
 
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Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet Alger Hiss at that apartment?
 
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Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question for the same reason.
 
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...
 
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Mr. Stripling. Did you ever meet in the apartment of Alger Hiss on P Street in Georgetown in 1935?
 
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Mr. Collins. I decline to answer that question on the grounds of possible self-incrimination.
 
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...
 
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Mr. Hebert. ...Now, why do you refuse to say whether you know Alger Hiss or not?...
 
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Mr. Collins. I refuse to answer that question, sir, on the grounds that my answer might tend to incriminate me. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 802-810 (PDF 312-320)</ref> but another AAA official, [[Nathaniel Weyl]], would later testify that he attended [[#refGuttenplan09|Communist cell meetings with Hiss]]<ref>Mr. COHN. Did you know Alger Hiss to be a member of the Communist party?
 
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Mr. WEYL. Yes, I did.
 
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Mr. COHN. Were you in the same Communist cell with Alger Hiss at one time?
 
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Mr. WEYL. That is correct.
 
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…
 
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Mr. WEYL. ...Hiss and I were among the eight or nine people who met with the first meeting of that organization, I presume. So I was in this Communist cell with him for a period of approximately nine months.
 
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[http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/resources/pdf/Volume1.pdf Testimony of Nathaniel Weyl] before the [[Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations of the Committee on Government Operations]], United States Senate, February 23, 1953, pp. 619-620 (PDF pp. 658-659)</ref> and [[#refTime3.3.52|saw him pay his party dues]],<ref>Nathaniel Weyl, “I Was in a Communist Unit with Hiss,” ''U.S. News and World Report'', January 9, 1953</ref> testimony he would reaffirm in his 2004 autobiography.<ref>Nathaniel Weyl, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/1413407471 Encounters With Communism]'' (Philadelphia: Xlibris, 2004) ISBN 1413407471, cited in [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 551, n. 6; [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]</ref> Ex-Communists Ralph de Sola and George Hewitt would both also testify to having seen Hiss at [[Communist Party]] meetings.<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360</ref> A former [[GRU]] station chief in [[London]] and [[New York]] reported that during the early and middle 1930s Hiss was a [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=H-HOAC&month=0704&week=d&msg=rdvHVZGvkWX%2BOMFhhKt2Iw&user=&pw= source of agent information] for a [[USSR|Soviet]] [[espionage|spy]] ring in Washington, the [[Silvermaster group]], according to Pavel Sudoplatov, former [http://www.nytimes.com/1996/09/28/world/pavel-sudoplatov-89-dies-top-soviet-spy-who-accused-oppenheimer.html deputy director of Foreign Intelligence for the USSR].<ref>[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227-228. Two others also alleged to be in contact with the [[Ware group]] ([[George Silverman]] and [[Harry Dexter White]]) would likewise be identified as sources of the [[Silvermaster group]].</ref>
 
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===Nye Committee===
 
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In 1934, again with an assist from [[Lee Pressman|Pressman]] ([http://www.nytimes.com/1997/03/09/books/the-truest-believer.html?pagewanted=all according to Jackson]),<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 143</ref> Hiss, "[[#refChronology|on loan]]" from AAA, became [[#refMHSL|General Counsel]] for the [[U.S. Senate]]'s [[Special Committee Investigating the Munitions Industry|Nye committee]], which investigated people Chairman [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=n000176 Gerald P. Nye] (R.-N.D.) called [[Wall Street]]'s "merchants of death," whom he accused of conspiracy to "drag the [[United States|U.S.]] into a struggle" with [[Nazi]] [[Germany]] that, according to the U.S. Senate Historical Office, the noted [[progressive]]<ref>John Whiteclay Chambers II, "[http://www.answers.com/topic/gerald-nye Nye, Gerald P.]," ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_Rzy_yNMKbcC The Oxford Companion to American Military History]'' (Oxford University Press, 1999) ISBN 0195071980, p. 515</ref> maintained was [http://www.senate.gov/artandhistory/history/minute/merchants_of_death.htm none of our business]. One scholar dubbed these hearings a "witch-hunt" for "subversive [[capitalist]]s," in which Hiss was to Nye what [[Roy Cohn]] would later be to [[Senator]] [[Joe McCarthy]] (R.-Wisc.)<ref>Peter Viereck, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7Xu9KvBGlZMC Unadjusted Man in the Age of Overadjustment: Where History and Literature Intersect]'' (Edison, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 2004) ISBN 0765808064, pp. 156-157</ref> On the [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/1916lenin-imperialism.html Leninist theory] that "capitalism was a cause of aggression,"<ref>James Grant, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=A5bfknd-WcQC Bernard M. Baruch: The Adventures of a Wall Street Legend]'' (John Wiley and Sons, 1997) ISBN 0471170755, p. 261</ref> Hiss employed what would later come to be known as "McCarthyite"<ref>[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 220</ref> methods, [http://www.stopthenorthamericanunion.com/DotsImages/AlgerHiss.jpg badgering] witnesses. Even his son would admit that Hiss was "as intolerant as any communist ... high-handed, smug, arrogant," particularly toward the "business leaders he cross-examined caustically."<ref>[[#refHiss2000|T. Hiss 2000]]</ref> One such witness, [http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/baruch.html Bernard Baruch], was reportedly the first man to openly assert that Hiss was a [[communist]].<ref>Bruce Craig, “[http://web.archive.org/web/20100604145023/http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_bruce_craig.pdf Alger Hiss: Recent Explorations in Documenting the Public and Private Man]” (Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, Center for the United States and the Cold War, New York University, April 5, 2007), p. 5 (Archived). Hiss reciprocated, calling Baruch "a [[#refLH88|vain and overrated]] [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/polonius Polonius]."</ref>
 
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The [[USSR|Soviets]] took great interest in the work of the committee for its [[propaganda]] value<ref>[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 115-116</ref> as well as its access to classified documents on U.S. armaments and foreign policy.<ref>[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev  1999]]: 40</ref> [[Moscow]] had at least one source on the staff of the committee, who provided valuable documents to the [[Kremlin]] in 1935,<ref>[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev  1999]]: 28-29</ref> the [[#refVenona1822|same year]] an agent later code-named "Ales" (pronounced "Alles") began working for [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]]. The committee's chief investigator, Stephen Rauschenbusch,<ref>This was the [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/rhetoric_and_public_affairs/v011/11.2.zietsma.pdf son of] Walter Rauschenbusch (Elizabeth Balanoff, [http://www2.roosevelt.edu/library/oralhistory/02-Herstein.pdf Interview with Lillian Herstein, Book 2], May 7, 1971 [Oral History Project in Labor History, Roosevelt University, 2006], p. 246 [PDF p. 41]), [http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/rausch-socialgospel.html founder of] the "Social Gospel" movement--who investigated [[Fabian socialism]] in England "under the tutelage of Beatrice and Sidney Webb" (Donovan Ebersole Smucker, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fIP_Til4U64C The Origins of Walter Rauschenbusch's Social Ethics]'' [McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994] ISBN 0773511636, p. 18), for whom "communism became... a substitute for religion." Richard Ingrams, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ezBbAAAAMAAJ Muggeridge: The Biography]'' (HarperCollins, 1995) ISBN 0002556103, p. 76</ref> would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss;<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68</ref> Nye would tell FBI investigators that he believed Hiss was a [[Communist]] during his time on the committee,<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43-44</ref> and would later say he believed Hiss used his position for [[espionage]].<ref>John E. Wiltz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xpDtAAAAMAAJ In Search of Peace: The Senate Munitions Inquiry, 1934-1936]'' (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1963) ISBN B000GX1RX0, p. 53</ref>
 
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Barely a month after joining the committee staff,<ref>[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev  1999]]: 40</ref> [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-chronology.html Hiss met] [[Whittaker Chambers]]. A decade later, "Vadim" ([[Anatoly Gorsky]], then chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S.)<ref>[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90</ref> would report to Moscow that "‘Ales’ ... used to work in ‘Karl’s’ informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors"<ref>[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 26; Trans. 50-51</ref> (According to [[NSA]] cryptographers, "neighbors" was the code name for the [[GRU]], Soviet military intelligence);<ref>[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)</ref> three years after that, Gorsky would identify "Karl" as "Whittaker Chambers, former editor in chief of 'Time' magazine. Traitor."<ref>[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]</ref>
 
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According to Chambers, he was introduced to Hiss by Communist underground boss<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 569 (PDF 79); cf. [[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 143-146</ref> [[J. Peters]];<ref>[[#refChambers52| Chambers 1952]]: 339</ref> Hiss would claim that Chambers had wandered into his office without introduction, as a [[#refHissAppellate|free-lance]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,799060-2,00.html writer] looking for a story. [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' version would be corroborated by the [http://www.lib.uiowa.edu/spec-coll/Bai/bevilacq.htm radical] novelist [[Josephine Herbst]], whose then-[[husband]], [[John Herrmann]], was an AAA official, a member of the [[Ware group]]<ref>Philip A. Greasley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZnuYKJSoHCMC Dictionary of Midwestern Literature: The Authors],'' (Indiana University Press, 2001) ISBN 0253336090, p. 264</ref> and a courier for the [[Communist]] underground<ref>[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 85</ref> subordinate to Chambers.<ref>Elinor Langer, "The Secret Drawer," ''The Nation'', May 30, 1994, p. 756. Herbst would be the first journalist to learn that Hiss's friend and teacher, José Robles, had been secretly [http://www.nytimes.com/1984/08/05/books/a-life-of-passionate-commitments.html?&pagewanted=all executed by the Communists]. Paul Preson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=GdXvTmgQJc4C We Saw Spain Die: Foreign Correspondents in the Spanish Civil War]'', (Skyhorse Publishing Inc., 2009) ISBN 1602397678, p. 64</ref> Correspondence between Herrmann and Herbst confirms Chambers' testimony "to the detriment of Hiss";<ref>David D. Anderson, "John Herrmann, Midwestern Modern, Part II: The Alger Hiss Case and the Midwestern Literary Connection," ''[http://www.ssml.org/publications/midwest/mm_1991.pdf Midwestern Miscellany'' XIX] (East Lansing, MI: The Midwestern Press, 1991), p. 46</ref> Hiss would later claim that he did not even know Herrmann&mdash;[http://www.thenation.com/article/great-pumpkin a "lie,"] according to Herbst's biographer.
 
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===Justice Department===
 
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In 1935, Hiss transferred into the [[Justice Department]] as special assistant to the [http://www.usdoj.gov/osg/ Solictor General], where he unsuccessfully defended the [[Agricultural Adjustment Act]] before the [[United States Supreme Court]]<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 645 (PDF 155)</ref> ([http://www.law.cornell.edu/supct-cgi/get-us-cite?297+1 which ruled] the AAA [[unconstitutional]] in 1936).
 
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====Hiss's 1929 Ford====
 
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In the summer of 1936, [[J. Peters]] arranged a dummy transaction, according to Chambers, in which Hiss donated his 1929 Ford to the [[Communist Party]].<ref>[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 378</ref> Hiss would deny this, testifying instead that he had sold<ref> "I sold him an automobile." [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)</ref> or given<ref>Mr. Hiss...I don't think I got any
 
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compensation. Mr. Stripling. You just gave him the car? Mr. Hiss. I think the car just went right in with it... Mr. Stripling. What kind of a bill of sale did you give Crosley? Mr. Hiss. I think I just turned over&mdash;in the District you get a certificate of title, I think it is, I think I just simply turned it over to him. Mr. Stripling. Handed it to him? Mr. Hiss. Yes. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 958-959 (PDF 468-469)</ref> or loaned<ref>Hiss: "my letting Crosley use the Ford... it is even possible that he returned it to me after using it... Whether I gave him the car outright, whether the car came back, I don't know." [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1093, 1095, 1104 (PDF 603, 605, 614)</ref> the car [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html to Chambers] in June 1935, after buying a new car.<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 957 (PDF 467)</ref> But Hiss did not buy a new car until some three months after this, and he continued to pay insurance on the Ford for a year [[#refCohen93|after he claimed to have gotten rid of it]].
 
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Chambers' version would be corroborated by the car's certificate of title, which showed that Hiss actually transferred the car on July 23, 1936, to the Cherner Motor Company, which [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/5.html sold it the same day] to the [[Communist]]<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 60</ref> William Rosen for $25. The address listed on the certificate was not Rosen's but [http://law2.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-25testimony.html that of Benjamin Bialeck], a [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-hoac&month=0505&week=b&msg=FD4eU7DUS6jIaiCTiaFJfg&user=&pw= leading official of the Baltimore Communist Party]. The company's records of the transaction had vanished.<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1065 (PDF 566); [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 47</ref> The salesman for the transaction refused to testify on grounds of potential self-incrimination; later investigation would establish that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-hoac&month=0505&week=b&msg=02ybKmtOa6aYfyrfupryvw&user=&pw= he was a secret Communist] who on other occasions conducted automobile transfers to assist Soviet intelligence. Richard Tourin, son of a photographer for [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Philip Rosenbliet]’s espionage apparatus, wrote in his memoir that his father’s Soviet contact in 1937 rewarded his father’s service to the Soviets with [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-hoac&month=0505&week=b&msg=FD4eU7DUS6jIaiCTiaFJfg&user=&pw= a used car supplied via William Rosen]. Rosen would [[#refHissAppellate|refuse to answer]] [http://ny.findacase.com/research/wfrmDocViewer.aspx/xq/fac.19490425_0040188.C02.htm/qx questions about his role] in the transfer or in the [[Communist Party]] on grounds [[#refHissAppellate|of potential self-incrimination]]. Hiss's attorney, Edward McLean, wrote that Rosen's lawyer, Emmanuel Bloch,<ref>This was the same attorney who had represented Communist underground boss [[J. Peters]] in his deportation hearing; he would later represent [[Julius Rosenberg|Julius and Ethel Rosenberg]] in their espionage trial. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53</ref> told him:
 
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{{cquote|…that Rosen did lend himself to a [[#refNYRB|dummy transaction]] concerning the Ford car.... [A]t some later date, a man came to see Rosen and told him that the title certificate to the Ford was in Rosen's name and asked Rosen to sign an assignment of it to some other person. Rosen did this. The man who came to see Rosen was a very high [[Communist]]. His name would be a sensation in this case. The man who ultimately got the car is also a Communist. Bloch implied that Rosen was a Communist too....<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 53</ref>}}
 
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The title transfer bore a signature Hiss acknowledged to be his own,<ref>Mr. NIXON. All right; you are willing to testify now then that since Mr. Smith did notarize your signature as of that time, that it is your signature? Mr. HISS. On the basis of the assumptions vou state, the answer is "Yes".... Mr. NIXON. You don't deny, however, that the notarization of your signature on the transfer to Cherner Motor Co. in July of 1936 is your signature? Mr. HISS. I certainly do not. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1116, 1119 (PDF 626, 629)</ref> notarized by Hiss's [[Justice Department]] colleague W. Marvin Smith. In 1948 Smith would tell the [[HUAC|Thomas committee]] that he had notarized Hiss's signature on the transfer,<ref>Mr. STRIPLING. I show you a photostatic copy of an assignment of title which was... subpenaed from the files, of the Vehicles and Traffic Division of the District of Columbia... It states in part... "Assignment of title. For value received the undersigned hereby sells, assigns, or transfer unto (name of purchaser)"; then, written in is "Cherner Motor Company; address, 1781 Florida Avenue, Northwest"... It says, "Signature of Assignor, Alger Hiss." Then it says, "On the 23d day of July 1936, before me, the subscriber, a notary public of the District of Columbia, personally appeared Alger Hiss, who made oath in due form of law that the above statements are true. Witness my hand and notarial seal, W. Marvin Smith, Notary Public." Is that your signature, Mr. Smith? Mr. SMITH. It sure does look like it. Mr. STRIPLING. You say it does? Mr. SMITH. Yes; I have no doubt it is. [[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1072 (PDF 582)</ref> but before he could so testify in the Hiss [[trial]], Smith would would be found dead from a fall down a five-story Justice Department stairwell; there would be no witnesses.<ref>"U.S. Lawyer Who Figured In Hiss Case Killed in Fall," ''The Washington Post,'' October 21, 1948, p. 1. Cf. "[http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1893&dat=19510317&id=lQ8pAAAAIBAJ&sjid=39YEAAAAIBAJ&pg=4789,1952807 Drew Pearson's Washington Merry-Go-Round," ''The Southeast Missourian'', March 17, 1951], p. 6</ref>
 
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====Hede Massing and Noel Field====
 
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[[Image:AlgerHiss Sig.jpg|thumb|250px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Алджер Хисс) from Alexander Vassiliev's notes on an April 1936 report from Hede Massing to Moscow Center. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]At a 1935 dinner at the home of [[State Department]] official (and [[#refFieldUK|Soviet intelligence source]]) [[Noel Field]], Hiss argued with [[OGPU]] recruiter [[Hede Massing]] that Field should work with Hiss's [[GRU]] group, rather than Massing's OGPU group, according to Massing.<ref>Hede Massing, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cogGAQAAIAAJ&pgis=1 This Deception]'' (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1951), p. 335. Massing's account is corroborated by Czech archives. Central Intelligence Agency memorandum for Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation: Revelations of Karel Kaplan, June 29, 1977, [http://www.foia.cia.gov/docs/DOC_0000028650/0000028650_0015.gif p. 5] (CIA Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room)</ref>
 
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[[Noel Field|Field]] would defect in 1948 to [[Communist]] [[Czechoslovakia]], where he would tell the [[secret police]] that he was fleeing to avoid testifying in the [[trial]] of Alger Hiss, whom he identified as a fellow Communist underground agent in the [[State Department]] during the mid-thirties, according to official records published in 1990 by Karel Kaplan, former archivist of the Central Committee of the Czech [[Communist Party]].<ref>Karel Kaplan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=x3s6sBZw-YkC&pg=PA19&dq=%22noel+field%22&sig=d7XE7yhraGkrz6k4AP0ljIqXEvY#PPA19,M1, Report on the Murder of the General Secretary]'' (London: I.B. Taurus & Co. Ltd., 1990), ISBN 1-85043-211-2, pp. 19-25</ref> A 1955 Czechoslovak secret police reinvestigation (obtained in 2000 by Czech [[human rights]] activist Karel Skrabek) states, "Noel Field said that … Hiss worked for the [[USSR]] as a spy."<ref>[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 133</ref> Field would end up in Communist [[Hungary]], where in 1954 he would tell Hungarian secret police that he and Hiss "mutually realized we were Communists. Around the summer of 1935 Alger Hiss tried to induce me to do service for the [[USSR|Soviets]]."<ref>Transcripts: September 23, 1954; September 29, 1954. Noel Field file, Archives, Czechoslovak Ministry of the Interior, quoted in Mária Schmidt, ''[http://www.terrorhaza.hu/en/museum/about_us/curriculum_vitae.html Behind the Scenes of the Showtrials of Central-Eastern Europe]'', Budapest 1993 (uncorrected manuscript), cited in [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 135; Mária Schmidt, “Noel Field&mdash;The American Communist at the Center of Stalin’s East European Purge: From the Hungarian Archives,” ''American Communist History'' 3, no. 2 (December 2004); Mária Schmidt, "The Hiss Dossier: A Historian's Report," ''The New Republic'', November 8, 1993, pp. 17-20</ref>
 
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The transcripts also record [[Noel Field|Field]] [[#refTanenhaus93|saying that he turned over]] [[State Department]] documents to [[Hede Massing]] in the 1930s. In other statements Field twice said that although Hiss knew that Field “was a [[Communist]],” he strongly supported Field at the State Department and even tried to help him obtain a job as a State Department adviser in the [[Philippines]] in 1940.<ref>Ethan Klingsberg, "Case Closed on Alger Hiss?" ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993</ref> The dossier likewise records a statement by Field that he briefly visited Hiss in 1939 in [[America]], where they agreed that if either's cover was ever blown, he would communicate to the other indirectly.<ref>Sam Tanenhaus, “Hiss: Guilty as Charged,” ''Commentary'', April 1993; Sam Tanenhaus, "New Reasons to Doubt Hiss," ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993</ref> Shortly before his [http://www.nytimes.com/2001/03/02/arts/hermann-field-wartime-prisoner-and-novelist-90.html death in 2001], Field's brother Hermann said the dossier was accurate: Noel Field confirmed to him, said his brother, that [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-diplo&month=0506&week=d&msg=TtrUE8GbtON64EPU7AQOzA&user=&pw= Hiss was a spy].
 
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[[Image:A. Hiss - Yurist.jpg|thumb|250px|left|The name “A. Hiss” and code name "Yurist" (Jurist) in Cyrillic (А. Хисс&mdash;"Юрист") from Vassiliev's notes on a Moscow Center annotation. ''Image source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]In a 1936 memorandum, found in the [[NKVD]] archives by former [[KGB]] agent [http://www.randomhouse.com/author/results.pperl?authorid=31935 Alexander Vassiliev], [[Hede Massing|Massing]] complains to [[Moscow]] that [[Field]] (whom she refers to by his code name "Ernst")<ref>R.C.S. Trahair, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=VNSMrps8mpcC Encyclopedia of Cold War Espionage, Spies, and Secret Operations]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004) ISBN 0313319553, p. 76</ref> "was approached by Alger Hiss" (Massing uses his real name), who "informed him that he is a Communist" with "ties to an organization working for the Sov. Union" &mdash;a serious breach of discipline. (A Moscow Center annotation identifies "A. Hiss" as the GRU agent designated by the code name "Jurist.")<ref>[[#refVasYellow2|Vassiliev Yellow Notebook #2]]: Orig. 3; Trans. 4; cf. [[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev  1999]]: 6; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 6-7</ref> As a result, noted [[Boris Bazarov]], [[OGPU]] "illegal" station chief for the [[United States]],<ref>[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 222</ref> Field "and Hiss [Bazarov also used Hiss's real name] [[#refPowers2000|have been openly identified]]" as [[USSR|Soviet]] agents.<ref>[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev  1999]]: 7; [[#refPowers04|Powers 2004]]: 89; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228</ref>
 
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According to [[Hede Massing|Massing]], Hiss also asked [[Noel Field|Field]] to use his connections to help Hiss get into the [[State Department]].<ref>[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 228</ref>
 
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==State Department==
 
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Hiss took a pay cut<ref>[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 5</ref> to transfer into the [[State Department]] in September 1936, the same month a [[GRU]] agent designated by the code name "Jurist" began working there.<ref>[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 12</ref> Hiss was now special assistant to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Trade Agreements Francis B. Sayre, [http://www.woodrowwilsonhouse.org/timeline/ImageDisplay.asp?ID=37 son-in-law] of [[Woodrow Wilson]]. Two years later, Alger's younger [[brother]] [[Donald Hiss|Donald]], who had followed him to [[Johns Hopkins University|Johns Hopkins]], [[Harvard Law School|Harvard Law]], and a clerkship for [[Oliver Wendell Holmes|Justice Holmes]], would join him at State, rising to the position of [http://www.nytimes.com/1989/05/20/obituaries/donald-hiss-82-ex-us-official-and-lawyer-in-washington-firm.html assistant to future Secretary of State] [[Dean Acheson]].
 
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In a [[#refHK07|cable]] of the era found in the [[NKVD]] archives by Vassiliev, NKVD illegal [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov]] reports to [[Moscow]] that [[J. Peters]] (code-[http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html named] [[#refBLH05|"Storm"]])<ref>[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 163; [[#refBC07|Bird, Chervonnaya 2007]]</ref> told him that "Hiss [Akhmerov used his real name] used to be a member of ''bratskiy'' organization (the [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page66.html CPUSA underground]) who had been implanted into 'Surrogate' (cover name for the [[State Department]])<ref>[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev  1999]]: 5</ref> and sent to the Neighbors [the [[GRU]]]<ref>[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)</ref>...."<ref>[[#refHK03|Haynes, Klehr 2003]]: 150; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 230</ref>
 
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At some point in 1935-37, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] [[#refHUAC8-17-48|gave Hiss a rug]] from Bokhara, in [[Soviet]] [[Uzbekistan]]. Just before [[Christmas]] 1936, [[Soviet]] [[Colonel]] [[Boris Bykov]], head of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] in the U.S.,<ref>[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 639</ref> had given Chambers $800 (equivalent to approximately [[#refBLS|$13,000 today]]) to buy four [http://justiceiro.smugmug.com/photos/113296067-M.jpg Bokhara rugs] for Hiss, [[Harry Dexter White]], [[George Silverman]], and [[Julian Wadleigh]], according to Chambers; Hiss would later claim that Chambers had given him his rug in 1935 in partial payment for rent.
 
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Chambers' version was corroborated by [[Marxist]]<ref>Alan Wallach, "Marxist Art Historian: Meyer Schapiro, 1904-1996," ''Against the Current'' 62 (May-June 1996), p. 52</ref> [[Columbia University]] [[art]] historian [http://www.nytimes.com/1996/03/04/us/meyer-schapiro-91-is-dead-his-work-wove-art-and-life.html Meyer Schapiro], who confirmed that he arranged the purchase (and produced the canceled check dated December 23, 1936); by the [[Massachusetts]] Importing Company of [[Manhattan]], which confirmed selling him the rugs (and produced the [[Bill of Sale]]); by White's widow and Silverman (who confirmed that they had received their rugs sometime between late 1936 and the fall of 1938); and by Wadleigh, [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F00611FE345F177B93CBA91789D95F4D8485F9 who confessed] to having been a member of Chambers' apparatus and delivering documents to him, confirmed that he had received his rug for [[New Year's Day|New Year's]] 1937,<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 117-118</ref> and conceded that he understood the rug to be a gift [[#refCohen93|from the Soviets]].
 
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By 1937, the peak of [[Stalin]]'s [[Great Purge|Great Terror]]<ref>[[#refConquest91|Conquest 1991]]</ref> (the victims of which would number [http://www.nytimes.com/1990/05/13/books/now-it-can-be-told-even-in-russia.html?pagewanted=all over ten million]), Hiss was delivering packets of documents to [[Whittaker Chambers]] at intervals of a week or ten days, according to Oleg Gordievsky, the [http://www.guardian.co.uk/Archive/Article/0,4273,4126872,00.html highest-ranking] [[KGB]] officer ever to defect.<ref>[[#AG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 230. In 2008, Gordievsky would become [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/7333382.stm partially paralyzed], as a result, he told Scotland Yard, of what he suspected was an assassination attempt.</ref>
 
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That year, [[Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov|Akhmerov]] cabled [[Moscow]] that [[Michael Straight]] ([http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1451875/Michael-Straight.html code-named "Nigel"])&mdash;an [[#refPlatt99|FDR protégé]] and intimate family friend of the President and First Lady, who was also a [http://www.guardian.co.uk/news/2004/jan/09/guardianobituaries.usa member of] the [[NKVD]]'s [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]] (and would become an [[FDR]] speech writer<ref>[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 153</ref> and [http://www.nytimes.com/2004/01/05/nyregion/michael-straight-who-wrote-of-connection-to-spy-ring-is-dead-at-87.html publisher of ''The New Republic'']), then working at the [[State Department]]&mdash;mentioned Hiss (using his real name) as someone with "[[progressive]]" views "who occupied a responsible position."<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 183-184</ref> Akhmerov worried that Straight "might guess that Hiss [Akhmerov again used Hiss's real name] belongs to our family" or "find out Hiss's nature" as a [[GRU]] agent.<ref>[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 155-156</ref>
 
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On November 23, 1937, [[Whittaker Chambers]] bought a used car, using $400 (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$6,000 today]]) [[#refHissAppellate|he said Alger Hiss loaned him]].<ref>[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 39</ref> Hiss would [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,780167,00.html deny making the loan], but records showed that the Hisses withdrew $400 in cash from their savings four days before Chambers bought the car.<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73</ref> At first the Hisses claimed that they had used the money [[#refNoe9|to buy furniture]] for a new house, but they had not signed a lease at the time,<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 198-202</ref> and could not produce receipts for any purchases, nor explain why they had used cash from savings rather than the checking and charge accounts they otherwise used for such purchases.<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 73</ref>
 
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In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] made his final break with the [[Communist]]s.<ref>[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 25</ref> The break came as a result of Chambers' insight that "The communist vision is the vision of Man without God." This vision he found increasingly untenable as the birth of his daughter gave rise to Chambers' spiritual awakening:
 
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{{cquote|My daughter was in her high chair. I was watching her eat. She was the most miraculous thing that had ever happened in my life.... My eye came to rest on the delicate convolutions of her ear—those intricate, perfect ears. The thought passed through my mind: "No, those ears were not created by any chance coming together of atoms in nature (the Communist view). They could have been created only by immense design." The thought was involuntary and unwanted. I crowded it out of my mind. But I never wholly forgot it or the occasion. I had to crowd it out of my mind. If I had completed it, I should have had to say: Design presupposes God. I did not then know that, at that moment, the finger of God was first laid upon my forehead.<ref>[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: "Foreword in the Form of a Letter to My Children"</ref>}}
 
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Wary after the [[#refSchwartz88|murder of Ignace Poretsky]]<ref>Poretsky ([http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Protected/Articles/000/000/006/224euczs.asp?pg=1 alias Ignace Reiss]) was murdered, apparently to protect the identity of Hiss's Harvard friend and State Department colleague, [[#refVenona1613|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan: A Moscow Center report of Poretsky's "liquidation" notes, "For now the danger of 19 [Duggan] ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 105) being exposed through Raymond's [Poretsky's] ([[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 129) line is significantly diminished." ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 232) He was killed by OGPU agent Roland Abbiat ([[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 [PDF 285-287]; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 47, 78-79), who would later go [[#refKlehr04|under cover as Vladimir Pravdin]], New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS.</ref> and disappearance of [[Juliet Poyntz]],<ref>[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 131-133</ref> Chambers asked his wife's nephew<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 319. "Mr. Levine. He gave me an envelope to put away for him some 10 years ago… I asked what would happen in the event both he and Esther were liquidated, and he said, 'You would know what to do with it, you are an attorney.'" [[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Pt. 2]]: 1452 (PDF 80)</ref> to hide what he called his "life preserver"&mdash;a packet of copies of [[#refTime12.20.48|documents, hand-written memos and microfilm]].<ref>[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 40-41</ref> On the advice of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F70C14FB3E59147A93C5AB178AD95F408685F9 Herbert Solow], former press agent for the Communist League of America,<ref>Robert Jackson Alexander, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_eUtQjseKaIC International Trotskyism, 1929-1985: A Documented Analysis of the Movement]'' (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1991), ISBN 0-822-30975-0, p. 775</ref> Chambers made it known to the [[Soviet]] underground, via Schapiro and the ex-[[Communist]]<ref>Theodore Draper, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SlRc3KqcDygC American Communism and Soviet Russia]'' (Edison, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2003), ISBN 0765805316, p. 357</ref> (and former Soviet agent)<ref>[[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]</ref> [http://www.marxisthistory.org/history/usa/parties/spusa/1917/0309-lore-todebs.pdf Ludwig Lore], that he had "photographic copies of handwritten matters the appearance of which would [[#refNYRB|seriously embarrass]] them," which would be made public in the event anything were to happen to him.<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 318</ref>
 
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In 1939, Sayre became [[United States]] High Commissioner to the [[Philippines]], and Hiss transferred to become personal aide to Stanley Hornbeck, political advisor to the [[State Department]]'s Far Eastern Division. When Hiss first walked into the office, Hornbeck advised him that he had been warned that Hiss was "a red."<ref>FBI Memorandum, March 25, 1946: Re Secretary of State James Byrnes interview with Hiss; Hiss’ response to allegations (pp. 121-124), FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster032.pdf Vol. 32], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster032_Folder/Silvermaster032_page123.pdf p. 2 (PDF p. 123)]</ref> Foreign Service Officer Max Waldo Bishop, who worked in the same office, said Hiss occasionally had "dubious, Left Wing characters in his office."<ref>Thomas F. Conlon, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004bis02%29 Interview with Max Waldo Bishop], Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1993 (Library of Congress)</ref>
 
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Hiss meanwhile urged Sayre to hire as his replacement [[#refFieldUK|Soviet Intelligence source]] [[Noel Field]], despite his lack of experience.<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 349-350</ref> Due to the fact that Field had been identified to the State Department as a member of various [[Communist|Red]] front groups starting in 1926, and as a [[Communist Party]] member the previous year,<ref>FBI Report: Whittaker Chambers, Internal Security&mdash;C, September 5, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)</ref> he did not get the appointment. Sayre would later refuse to testify as a character witness for Hiss.<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68</ref> After his defection behind the [[Iron Curtain]], [[Noel Field|Field]] would confirm to East bloc authorities that Hiss knew he was a Communist when he recommended Field as his replacement.<ref>Ethan Klingsberg, "Case Closed on Alger Hiss?" ''The Nation'', November 8, 1993</ref>
 
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===Nazi-Soviet Pact===
 
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[[Image:Molotov signs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov signs the Nazi-Soviet Pact; Nazi Foreign Minister von Ribbentrop and Soviet dictator Josef Stalin stand behind him, Moscow, August 23, 1939. ''Image source: [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/242.html#242.28 Collection of Foreign Records Seized], National Archives and Records Administration'']]At the 1935 funeral of Marshal [http://www.poland.gov.pl/Jozef,Pilsudski,(1867-1935),1972.html Józef Piłsudski] in [[Warsaw]], [[U.S.]] [[Ambassador]] to [[Moscow]] [http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/archives_roll/2003_01-03/sempa_bullitt/sempa_bullitt.html William C. Bullitt] had given confidential assurance to the [[Polish]] [[government]] that the [[United States]] would stand by [[Poland]] in the event of a [[Nazi]] invasion. But after Bullitt reported back to [[Washington]] that he had done so, someone at the [[State Department]] passed this information to the [[Kremlin]], which in turn transmitted it to [[German]] intelligence (with which [[Soviet intelligence]] had maintained liaison since the time of [[Lenin]]).<ref>See, for example: Michael Pearson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7rkeAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 The Sealed Train: Lenin's Eight Month Journey from Exile to Power]'' (New York: Putnam, 1975) ISBN 0399112626, particularly the German documents in the Afterward. Cf. [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: eg., 2, 69; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_001.htm German-Russian Agreement] (Treaty of Rapallo), April 16, 1922; [http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/intdip/formulti/rapallo_002.htm Supplementary Agreement], November 5, 1922; Hans W. Gatzke, "[http://www.jstor.org/pss/1848881 Russo-German Military Collaboration during the Weimar Republic]," ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 63, No. 3 (April 1958), pp. 565-597; Ernst Fraenkel, "[http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=5280948 German-Russian Relations Since 1918: From Brest-Litovsk to Moscow]," ''The Review of Politics'', Vol. 2, No. 1 (1940), pp. 34-62. N.B. the coming to power of the Nazis did nothing to interrupt this liaison: "The documents of the German Foreign Ministry, captured by the Allies at the end of World War II and published in London during the 1950's, show that secret negotiations between Stalin's agents and the Hitler Government began as early as 1933." Aleksandr Nekrich and Mikhail Heller, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=G-poAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 Utopia in Power: The History of the Soviet Union from 1917 to the Present]'' (Summit Books, 1986) ISBN 0671462423, p. 310. Nazi-Soviet relations became even closer [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/nazsov.asp in 1939-1941]. (Cf. Daniel Pipes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=1akgAQAAIAAJ Communism: a history]'' [Modern Library, 2003] ISBN 0812968646, pp. 74-75; Viktor Suvorov, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4-khAQAAIAAJ The chief culprit: Stalin's grand design to start World War II]'' [Naval Institute Press, 2008] ISBN 1591148383, p. 248) The Soviets were still negotiating with the Nazis [[#refBlack06|as late as the Teheran conference]] in December 1943. Robert C. Grogin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qBBcqDludakC Natural Enemies: the United States and the Soviet Union in the Cold War, 1917-1991]'' (Lexington Books, 2001) ISBN 0739101609, p. 38</ref> Nazi [[propaganda]] minister [[Joseph Goebbels]] exploited this information to portray the United States as a warmonger. According to de Toledano, the State Department source who passed this information to the [[Soviets]] [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238 was Alger Hiss].
 
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When in the wake of the [[Hitler-Stalin pact]] the [[Communist Party]] organ ''[[The Daily Worker]]'' came under suspicion for reversing its anti-[[Nazi]] posturing, [[Politburo]] member Roy Hudson<ref>[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45</ref> discussed what to do about it with Soviet agent<ref>Scotland Yard (London) Secret Special Report, No. 4, "The Case of Philip Price and Robert Minor," U.S. State Department Decimal File, 316-23-1184 9, Washington, D.C.</ref> [[Robert Minor]], according to former ''[[Daily Worker]]'' editor Louis Budenz. Someone mentioned that [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]] could not be of much help as they, too, were under suspicion at the time. According to Budenz, Alger Hiss was then mentioned as a good Comrade who would be helpful.<ref>FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30.</ref>
 
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That year, French Premier [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/150071/Edouard-Daladier  Édouard Daladier] informed Bullitt (now [[Ambassador]] to [[France]]) that two brothers [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/213989152.html?dids=213989152:213989152&FMT=ABS named Hiss], both in the U.S. government, were [http://w4.pica.army.mil/voice/voice2002/020419/KoreaApr4-10.htm Soviet agents].<ref>Testimony of Ambassador William Bullitt, April 8, 1952, “Communist influence on U.S. policies in the Far East,” Hearings Before the Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and other Internal Security Laws of the Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, 82nd Cong., 2d Sess. Hearings: March 13, 1951 to June 20, 1952; Report: July 2, 1952</ref> Bullitt “laughed it off as a tall tale, never having heard their names.”<ref>[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 198</ref>
 
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The year before, in [[Paris]], defecting former [[GRU]] chief in [[Europe]] Walter Krivitsky<ref>Roman Brackman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zQL8POkFGIQC The Secret File of Joseph Stalin: A Hidden Life]'' (Florence, Ky: Routledge, 2001) ISBN 0714650501, p. 299</ref> had identified Hiss as an agent of [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]], according to [http://www.nytimes.com/1987/12/28/obituaries/alexander-g-barmine-88-dies-early-high-level-soviet-defector.html Alexander Barmine], former Charge d'Affairs at the [[Soviet]] [[Embassy]] in [[Athens]], who had defected in 1937.<ref>FBI Report: Alger Hiss, February 4, 1949</ref> When news of the [[Hitler-Stalin Pact]] (which Krivitsky had predicted)<ref>Julien Steinberg, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gJPBKoLgOxwC Verdict of Three Decades: From the Literature of Individual Revolt Against Soviet Communism, 1917-1950]'' (Manchester, NH: Ayer Publishing, 1971) ISBN 0836920775, p. 358; David C. Martin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kpNwCgiTJXEC Wilderness of Mirrors: Intrigue, Deception and the Secrets That Destroyed Two of the Cold War's Most Important Agents]'' (Globe Pequot, 2003) ISBN 1585748242, p. 5</ref> broke on August 24, 1939, Krivitsky warned his ''Saturday Evening Post'' ghostwriter, [[Russia]]n emigré [http://marbl.library.emory.edu/findingaids/pdf?id=levine700_102547 Isaac Don Levine], "Everything that went on in the embassy, especially the major communications between [[Washington]] and Bullitt, were quickly relayed to the Soviet [[secret police]]."<ref>[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 191. Loy Henderson, then charge d'affaires at the [[U.S.]] Embassy in [[Moscow]], would later confirm that at that time "in the [State] Department were a number of persons who did not hesitate to give [Litvinov] copies of my [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/hendrson.htm#transcript secret memoranda] relating to United States-Soviet relations." Krivitsky would be found shot dead in his Washington hotel room in 1941. (Roland Perry, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=btVW_NnmmS8C Last of the Cold War Spies: The Life of Michael Straight&mdash;The Only American in Britain's Cambridge Spy Ring]'' [Cambridge, Mass.: Da Capo Press, 2006] ISBN 030681482X, p. 131) Although he had warned his friends that if he were to be found dead, then [http://www.independent.co.uk/opinion/commentators/phillip-knightley-ignore-the-conspiracies-spies-never-forgive-a-traitor-425822.html he had been murdered], his death was [[#refTanenhaus93|ruled a suicide]]. Krivitsky had been liquidated by one of the [[NKVD]]'s Mobile Groups for Special Tasks, according to former Soviet [[espionage]] official Alexander Orlov. (Alexander Orlov, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7eRoAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 The Secret History of Stalin’s Crimes]'' [Norwich, Norfolk: Jarrold's, 1954], pp. 232-233; cf. Flora Lewis, "[http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost_historical/access/186559502.html?dids=186559502:186559502&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:AI&fmac=&date=Feb+13%2C+1966&author=By+Flora+Lewis+Washington+Post+Staff+Writer&desc=Who+Killed+Krivitsky%3F Who Killed Krivitsky?]" ''The Washington Post'', February 13, 1966, p. E1) Orlov's account is [http://www.hoover.org/publications/digest/8138382.html corroborated by] the [http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/tf7290056t Nicolaevsky] and Honeyman collections in the archives of the Hoover Institution. "Although the death was ruled a suicide, most people think that Stalin had his revenge." [http://www.cod.edu/library/Libweb/blewett/blewett.htm Daniel K. Blewett], "[http://search.barnesandnoble.com/Death-in-Washington/Gary-Kern/e/9781929631148 Review]: ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=2t_eAAAAMAAJ Death in Washington: Walter G. Krivitsky and the Stalin Terror]'' by Gary Kern," ''Library Journal'', [http://books.google.com/books?id=R2zhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 128] (R.R. Bowker Co., 2001), p. 102</ref>
 
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===Chambers' meeting with Berle===
 
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In 1938, [[Whittaker Chambers]] confessed to Levine that he had been a courier for the [[Communist]] underground. As [http://www.17september1939.com/ the joint] [[Nazi]]-[[Soviet]] invasion of [[Poland]]<ref>William Fortescue, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=zNtJcb0mtkoC The Third Republic in France, 1870-1940: Conflicts and Continuities]'' (Oxford: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0415169445, p. 231; William L. Shirer: ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sY8svb-MNUwC The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1990) ISBN 0671728687, pp. 626-632</ref> was gearing up, Levine sought to get Chambers an appointment with [[President]] [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], but was diverted by the [[White House]] to Assistant [[Secretary of State]] for Administration (in charge of security) Adolf Berle.<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 105</ref> On September 2, 1939, Chambers told Berle of an [[#refBerle|underground apparatus]] of the [[Communist Party]] for employees of the [[Federal government]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] Its organizer, said Chambers, was [[Harold Ware]], its treasurer [[Henry Collins]]; among its members he identified [[Lee Pressman]], [[Nathan Witt]], and the brothers [[#refTime2.13.50|Alger and Donald Hiss]].
 
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[[Image:Brest-litowsk.jpg|thumb|300px|left|Joint victory parade of Nazi and Soviet armies, Brest-Litovsk, Poland, September 22, 1939. ''Courtesy Pauli Kruhse (Finland)'']]While [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] talked, Berle took notes. Under the heading “Underground Espionage Agent,” he listed several names, including “Alger Hiss,” with the notation, “Ass’t. to Sayre—CP—1937,” and “Member of the Underground Com.—Active.”<ref>''United States v Alger Hiss'', Vol. VI (Sayre, Penn.: Murrelle Printing Co., 1950), attached to p. 3325; reproduced in Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, ''Interlocking subversion in Government Departments'', Part 6 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), pp. 329-330. Cf. [[#refBerle|Berle memo]]</ref> In Berle's diary, the entry for September 4, 1939 reads:
 
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{{cquote|Isaac Don Levine in his contact with the Krivitzky [sic] matter had opened up another idea of the Russian [[espionage]]. He brought a Mr. X around to my house on Saturday evening.... Through a long evening, I slowly manipulated Mr. X to a point where he had told some of the ramifications hereabout; and it becomes necessary to take a few simple measures. I expect more of this kind of thing, later. A good deal of the Russian espionage was carried on by [[Jews]]; we know now that they are exchanging information with [[Berlin]]; and the [[Jewish]] units are furious to find out they are, in substance, working for the [[Gestapo]].<ref>[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 249-250. Cf. [[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 55-58</ref>}}
 
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Before the month was out, the [[Nazi]] and [[Soviet]] armies staged a [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter99-00/art6.html joint victory parade] through the streets of occupied Brest-Litovsk, [[Poland]],<ref>Olaf Groehler, ''[http://www.worldcat.org/isbn/3928787012 Selbstmorderische Allianz: Deutsch-russische Militarbeziehungen, 1920-1941]'' (Berlin: Vision Verlag 1993), pp. 21-22, 123-124; [[#refNekrich97|Nekrich 1997]]: 131. Cf. Anthony Read and David Fisher, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kMtmAAAAMAAJ The deadly embrace: Hitler, Stalin, and the Nazi-Soviet Pact, 1939-1941]'' (M. Joseph, 1988), ISBN 0718129768, p. 336; Nigel Thomas, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=JBwBUSg1PoUC World War II Soviet Armed Forces (1): 1939-41]'' (Osprey Publishing, 2010), ISBN 1849084009, p. 15; Norman Davies, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Jzxt9FFBDPwC Rising '44: the battle for Warsaw]'' (Viking, 2004), ISBN 0670032840, p. 30</ref> where the Soviets handed over to the Gestapo some 600 prisoners, "most of them Jews."<ref>Louis Rapoport, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=5rZtAAAAMAAJ Stalin's war against the Jews: the doctors' plot and the Soviet solution]'' (Free Press, 1990), ISBN 0029258219, p. 57. Cf. Guy Stern, "[http://motlc.wiesenthal.com/site/pp.asp?c=gvKVLcMVIuG&b=395031 Writers in Extremis]," ''Simon Wiesenthal Center annual, Vol. 3'' (Rossel Books, 1986), p. 91; Robert Conquest, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ubXQSk2qfXMC The Great Terror: A Reassessment]'' (Oxford University Press US, 2007), ISBN 0195317009, p. 402; Richard J. Evans, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=iG4ud0PxeDMC The Third Reich in Power]'' (Penguin, 2006) ISBN 0143037900, p. 694</ref>
 
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But when it came to Chambers' allegation about Hiss, Berle “[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html scoffed at the charge],” according the Public Broadcasting System's NOVA Online. “I have vague recollections of having mentioned the matter to [[FDR|the President]] when shortly thereafter we were working on the Foreign Agents Registration Act [FARA],” claimed Berle, “which was the real, tangible outcome of this....”<ref>[[#refBerle52|Berle 1952]]: 598</ref> (Berle's “vague recollections” were mistaken: FARA was actually [http://www.justice.gov/criminal/fara/ enacted in 1938]&mdash;the year ''before'' he met with Chambers.) According to his diary, Berle discussed the matter with the FDR's secretary Marvin McIntyre, but not until 1942.<ref>[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 91</ref> According to Levine:
 
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{{cquote|Although I learned later, from two different sources who had social relations with Berle, that Roosevelt, in effect, had told him to "go jump in a lake" upon the suggestion of a probe into the Chambers charges, I do not recall hearing that exact phrase from Berle. To the best of my recollection, the President dismissed the matter rather brusquely with an expletive<ref>"an exclamatory word or phrase; especially : one that is [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/expletive?show=0&t=1314204947 obscene or profane]"; "an exclamation or [http://www.collinslanguage.com/results.aspx?context=3&reversed=False&action=define&homonym=0&text=expletive swearword]." Levine published his [[#refLevine73|memoir]] in 1973, in the midst of the Watergate scandal, which popularized the use of "expletive" as a euphemism for "[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=expletive cuss word]."</ref> remark on this order: "Oh, forget it, Adolf."<ref>[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-198</ref>}}
 
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In 1940, after Levine informed Bullitt of what [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] had told him about Hiss, Bullitt relayed to Hornbeck what Daladier had told him the year before. Bullitt advised [http://www.salon.com/people/feature/1999/06/07/longworth/print.html Alice Roosevelt Longworth] and de Toledano that he also took this information [[#refToledano01|directly to FDR]]. Levine also told [http://www.dol.gov/oasam/programs/laborhall/dd.htm David Dubinsky], president of the [http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/EAD/htmldocs/KCL05780.html International Ladies Garment Workers Union] about [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' revelations. Dubinsky, wrote Levine, "took up the Chambers matter with the [[Franklin Roosevelt|President]] at the first opportunity and was brushed off with an amiable slap on the back." Levine wrote that he also told fellow journalist [http://www.radiohof.org/news/walterwinchell.html Walter Winchell] of "a ring of six [[Soviet]] agents operating within the [[State Department]] alone. In his broadcast of December 12, Winchell announced that he had carried my information to President Roosevelt. Still there was no action."<ref>[[#refLevine73|Levine 1973]]: 197-199. Winchell's posthumously published memoir confirms Levine's story. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 331</ref>
 
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Diplomat [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]] said he knew of three separate occasions when Roosevelt was told about Hiss, including, apparently, once by liberal columnist [http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Dorothy Thompson]:<ref>[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/teachinger/glossary/thompson-dorothy.cfm Wife of] the [[Socialist]] [[Sinclair Lewis]], in 1948, Thompson would [http://www.peterkurth.com/DOROTHY%20THOMPSON.htm vote for] Socialist Party candidate [[Norman Thomas]] for [[President]].</ref> "Each time they were completely ignored."<ref>[http://clio.cul.columbia.edu:7018/vwebv/holdingsInfo?bibId=4072554 Oral history interview with Spruille Braden], Oral History Research Office, Nicholas Murray Butler Library, Columbia University. Cited in Peter Grose, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vjSliiGAx1MC Operation Rollback: America's Secret War Behind the Iron Curtain]'' (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2001) ISBN 0618154582, p. 65</ref> For Hiss was a family friend of the Roosevelts;<ref>While Hiss would claim only to have worked "under... or in association with" [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] "in the Government" ([[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1163-1164 [PDF 673-674]), the First Lady would write that she knew Hiss “[[#refER48|fairly well]],” while her daughter Anna reportedly had known him “[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/cherrick.html very well]” (in contrast to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], concerning whom Mrs. Roosevelt would sniff, “[http://article.nationalreview.com/?q=OGYzMjIzMWYyZDFkNzBiYmU5MjdiZjJkNDZmNjE5ZDk= He’s not one of us]”).</ref> FDR therefore "merely 'scoffed at the charge,'" according to British historian and former diplomat [http://www.shc.ed.ac.uk/staff/hon_fellows/dstafford/ David Stafford]: "As a result, [http://www.nytimes.com/books/first/s/stafford-roosevelt.html no counter-intelligence programme for identifying Communist agents in the federal government was put in place]."<ref>Years later, Hiss would comment from prison, "If the old man were alive, none of this would have happened." According to de Toledano, "the 'old man' was none other than [[#refToledano01|Roosevelt himself]]." ''Chicago Tribune'' Washington bureau chief Walter Trohan disagreed with Hiss's assessment: "Roosevelt would have sacrificed Hiss at the snap of the finger. He would have sacrificed anybody..." [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14</ref>
 
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Hiss would thus rise unimpeded through the ranks, by 1944 becoming deputy director of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Special Political Affairs, a policy-making office for postwar planning and international organization.<ref>[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 412</ref> In August, he [[#refLinder03|would organize]] the [http://www.un.org/aboutun/charter/history/dumbarton.shtml Dumbarton Oaks Conference],<ref>Hiss even suggested the location from which the conference derives its name. Robert C. Hilderbrand, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BFHJMfMtiKsC Dumbarton Oaks: The Origins of the United Nations and the Search for Postwar Security]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2001) ISBN 0807849502, p. 67</ref> where he would serve as [[#refWhalen48|executive]] [[#refTime2.13.50|secretary]], presiding over<ref>[[#refYUNHiss|YUN Hiss]]: 8 (PDF 9)</ref> the drafting of the proposed [[United Nations]] Charter.
 
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Berle, in contrast, would find his [[State Department]] career soon over. In 1948 he would be serving as chairman of [[New York]]'s Liberal Party, working for the reelection of [[President]] [[Harry Truman]]. That year, the New York bureau of the ''Christian Science Monitor'' would send a teletype to the home office in [[Boston]], relating a background interview with the party's publicity director, Arnold Beichman:
 
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{{cquote|From a thoroughly reliable contact: According to this informant Berle has said privately that classified material which Hiss was handling was reaching the Russians. It was coded stuff. Berle took the handling out of Hiss's hands and [[#refToledano97|the leaks stopped]].<ref>Ralph de Toledano, "Foreward," in William F. Buckley, Jr., ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZmoXAQAAIAAJ Odyssey of a Friend: Whittaker Chambers' Letters to William F. Buckley, Jr., 1954-1961]'' (New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969) ISBN 0895265672, pp. 38-39 (PDF pp. 42-43)</ref>}}
 
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But in the wake of Dumbarton Oaks, Berle had been ousted as Assistant [[Secretary of State]] in charge of security, defeated by the [[State Department]]'s pro-[[Soviet]] faction, Hiss prominent among them. As Berle put it:
 
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{{cquote|[I]n the fall of 1944 there was a difference of opinion in the [[State Department]]. I felt that the Russians were not going to be sympathetic and cooperative....[I]ntelligence reports which were in my charge indicated a [http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3827/is_200002/ai_n8887974/ very aggressive] policy, not at all in line with the kind of cooperation everyone was hoping for. I was pressing for a pretty clean-cut showdown then when our position was strongest. The opposite group in the State Department was largely ... [[Dean Acheson|Mr. Acheson]]'s group ... with Mr. Hiss as his principal assistant in the matter.... [A]t that time Mr. Hiss did take what we would call today the pro-Russian point of view....<ref>[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 28 (PDF p. 34). J. Anthony Panuch concurred: “Mr. Acheson and Mr. Hiss at the time I was in the department were sympathetic to the Soviet policy.” Chesly Manly, "[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/14_02/manly.pdf Acheson's Apologia]," ''Modern Age'', Spring 1970, pp. 203-204 (PDF pp. 1-2)</ref> I got trimmed in that fight, and, as a result, went to [[Brazil]], and that ended my diplomatic career.<ref>M. Stanton Evans, "[http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=453 McCarthyism: Waging the Cold War in America]," ''Human Events'', May 30, 1997</ref>}}
 
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===House Committee on Un-American Activities===
 
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Among those who directed the President's attention to the issue of Soviet agents in the government was Roosevelt's erstwhile congressional ally<ref>"Initially, Dies supported the New Deal." (William D. Pederson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cv-kRJoXag4C The FDR years]'' [Infobase Publishing, 2006] ISBN 0816053685, p. 67) "He was in full agreement with the Public Works Administration and with government regulation of banks and businesses. He proposed a comprehensive unemployment program of public works and wanted to use idle gold in Fort Knox to finance the relief program. He also asked Congress to increase gift and inheritance taxes, grant homestead exemptions on small farms and on homes worth five thousand dollars or less, and legislate tax differentials favoring small merchants." Dies also had a record of "support for governmental controls over giant corporations in order to preserve democracy and opportunity." George N. Green, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=egiHx_P8H0AC The establishment in Texas politics: the primitive years, 1938-1957]'' (University of Oklahoma Press, 1984) ISBN 0806118911, pp. 69-70</ref> [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000338 Martin Dies], Democrat of Texas. The President, recalled Dies, was "furious"&mdash;not at the infiltration of his administration by agents of a foreign power then allied with the Nazis, but with Dies for mentioning it&mdash;"you must see a bug-a-boo under every bed," he railed, adding "there is nothing wrong with the Communists in this country. Several of the best friends I have are Communists."<ref>Martin Dies, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BEl3AAAAMAAJ Martin Dies' story]'' (Bookmailer, 1963), p. 144</ref>
 
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Dies was chairman of the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. HUAC had grown out of a 1934 resolution (calling for the formation of a special committee to probe into "un-American activities") [http://www.americanjewisharchives.org/aja/FindingAids/Dick.htm introduced by] Congressman [[Samuel Dickstein]] (D-N.Y.)&mdash;a [http://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/03/books/the-kremlin-connection.html?pagewanted=all Soviet agent] [http://www.boston.com/globe/search/stories/books/weinstein_vassiliev.htm code-named "Crook."]<ref>[[#refVasWhite|Vassiliev White Notebook #2]]: Orig. 42-50; Trans 82-99</ref> Under the pretext of investigating U.S. fascists,<ref>[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155</ref> Dickstein was secretly paid by Moscow more than $12,000<ref>[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev  1999]]: 140-150</ref> (equivalent to more than [[#refBLS|$180,000 today]]) while using the committee to persecute [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,929957,00.html American businessmen], [http://www.amconmag.com/article/2009/aug/01/00043/ Soviet defectors] and [http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/journal_of_cold_war_studies/v011/11.3.fox.pdf Trotskyites].<ref>[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 475-476</ref>
 
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During the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop pact]], HUAC, now under Chairman Dies, included in its probes the Nazis' then-allies, including Communists.<ref>[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 78; Trans. 155</ref> In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact|Pact]], the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities|Dies committee]] obtained the membership list of the Washington Committee for Democratic Action, which would be confirmed as a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]] the following year by [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]]'s [[Attorney General]] Francis Biddle.<ref>[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 55 (n. 6), 610</ref> Included on the roster was the name of Priscilla Hiss,<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 329; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 48</ref> with the notation appended, "[[Husband]] with [[State Department]]."<ref>[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [[#refSilv82.120|109 (PDF 120)]], [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]]</ref>
 
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===Federal Bureau of Investigation===
 
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[[Image:FBI-Hiss-chart.jpg|thumb|300 px|Confidential FBI chart documenting the dissemination to the White House, State Department and Attorney General of dozens of secret memos and reports on Alger Hiss in 1942-47. ''Image source: J. Edgar Hoover Official & Confidential File #34, [http://vault.fbi.gov/ FOIA Reading Room], Federal Bureau of Investigation'']]As mandated by the [[Hatch Act]], this [[HUAC]] finding triggered an [[FBI]] background investigation of Hiss,<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 971 (PDF 481)</ref> in the course of which one of Hiss's former colleagues at the AAA told investigators that Hiss and his circle were [[fellow traveller|fellow travelers]], if not [[Communist]]s.<ref>FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)</ref> Hiss denied everything, although he said he thought his wife might have been a member of the [http://asteria.fivecolleges.edu/findaids/sophiasmith/mnsss134_main.html League of Women Shoppers], a [[Popular Front]] group<ref>Michael Denning, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QY8pUkLRM1YC The Cultural Front: The Laboring of American Culture in the Twentieth Century]'' (New York: Verso, 1998) ISBN 1859841708, p. 410</ref> identified by the committee in 1939 as a [[Communist front]].<ref>Meg Jacobs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M9kcixM1P6wC Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-century America]'' (Princeton University Press, 2005) ISBN 0691086648, p. 171</ref> In 1942, the Bureau sent a report of this investigation to the [[Secretary of State]],<ref>FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949, p. 2 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44)</ref> the first of what would become a veritable avalanche of FBI memos and reports on Hiss disseminated to the [[State Department]], Attorney General and [[White House]] over the ensuing five years.<ref> As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] would conclude in 1953: "There is ample evidence that the Federal Bureau of Investigation and other agencies learned the underlying fact of the Communist conspiracy, and time and again performed their duty and notified the proper administrative agencies of this information." ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 1110 [PDF 50])</ref>
 
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After ex-[[OGPU]] agent<ref>J.N. Kobjakov, “Bumazhnaja fabrika,”  ''Ocherki istorii rossiiskoi vneshnei razvedki'', tom 3, 1933-1941 gody (Moskva: Mezhdunarodnye otnoshenija, 2003), ss. 191-199 (J.N. Kobyakov, “The Paper Mill,” ''Essays on the History of Russian Foreign Intelligence'', vol. 3, 1933-1941 [Moscow: International Relations, 2003], pp. 191-199). Cf. [[#refKobyakov04|Kobyakov 2004]]</ref> Ludwig Lore identified [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] to the [[FBI]] as a former [[USSR|Soviet]] agent,<ref>Edith Tiger, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=pmj5QgAACAAJ In re Alger Hiss: petition for a writ of error coram nobis, Volume 2]'' (New York: Hill and Wang, 1980) ISBN 0809001500, pp. 208-209; [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 156-158</ref> the [[FBI|Bureau]] interviewed Chambers [[#refChronology|for the first time]] in 1942.<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 340</ref> After Chambers informed the investigators that he had already supplied this information to the State Department in 1939,<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 106</ref> the FBI requested and in 1943 obtained the notes Berle had taken during his meeting four years earlier with Chambers and Levine.<ref>FBI Memorandum: Conroy to Hoover, March 28, 1946, FBI file: [http://education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster031.pdf Vol. 31], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster031_Folder/Silvermaster031_page50.pdf p. 50]. Cf [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 92</ref> That year, an encrypted cable (decrypted in the [[Venona project]] and released in 1995) from Pavel Melshikev (code-named "Moliere"),<ref>Jonathan Haslam, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Sl5orE32HzcC Russia's Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall]'' (Yale University Press, 2011), ISBN 0300159978, p. 13</ref> controller of military intelligence for the [[NKVD]]<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 224</ref> (under cover as [[Soviet]] Vice Consul in [[New York]] "Pavel P. Mikhailov")<ref>[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 43 (PDF 45)</ref> to [[NKVD]] chief of foreign intelligence Lt. Gen. [[Pavel Fitin]] ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9feb_atomic_energy.pdf code-named "Viktor"]) in Moscow,<ref>[[#refRafalko2-4|Rafalko, Vol. 2, Ch. 4]]: 221 (PDF 6)</ref> identifying the real names and code names of several agents in the [[U.S.]], said the [[GRU]] (code-named "Neighbors")<ref>[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF p. 31)</ref> reported someone "from the [[State Department]] [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/28sep_gru_sources.pdf by the name of Hiss]."
 
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===Lend-Lease===
 
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Unfortunately, this data about Hiss emerged just as the Nazi-Soviet alliance [http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/suvorov.html broke down]. The Roosevelt administration promptly lost all interest in Communists, focusing its attention on hunting [http://www.fbi.gov/libref/historic/famcases/nazi/nazi.htm Nazi and fascist agents]. Throughout the duration of the pact, Moscow had fiercely opposed U.S. aid to Britain<ref>[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes and Anderson 1998]]: 87</ref> (which was fighting for its life against the Nazis), but now the U.S. extended its Lend-Lease program to the Soviet Union. In 1943, Stalin reciprocated by officially dissolving the [[Comintern]],<ref>[http://www.marxists.org/history/international/comintern/dissolution.htm Dissolution of the Communist International], Marxists Internet Archive</ref> forcing Soviet intelligence to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.<ref>“At the time that Stalin acceded to President Roosevelt’s request and dissolved the Comintern in 1943, Soviet intelligence had to reorganize its espionage channels in the United States.” [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/e-dossier-no-11-was-oppenheimer-soviet-spy-roundtable-discussion-jerrold-and-leona e-Dossier No. 11: Was Oppenheimer a Soviet Spy?] A Roundtable Discussion with Jerrold and Leona Schecter, Gregg Herken and Hayden Peake, Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars</ref> The International Department of the [[CPSU]] Central Committee was created that year essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Comintern<ref>“The International Department, created in 1943 essentially to carry out functions previously performed by the Third Communist International... was responsible for CPSU relations with nonruling communist parties in other states.” [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field%28DOCID+su0271%29 Departments of the Central Committee], Soviet Union, Country Studies, Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, 1989</ref> (which included “control over the CPUSA”),<ref>[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 48</ref> gradually transferring Comintern assets and networks to direct [[NKVD]] control.<ref>“During the latter part of the war, the KGB gradually took over assets and networks originally established by the GRU and the Comintern (particularly after Stalin dissolved the latter body in May 1943)." [[#refPrefaceBW96|Benson, Warner 1996: Preface]]</ref> Hiss was by this time among a handful of the Soviets' most important agents, who were run individually and not through spy networks, according to Oleg Gordievsky. Hiss's wartime controller, [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissvenona.html wrote Gordievsky], was [[Akhmerov]], the leading [[NKVD]] illegal in the [[United States]], who, in a lecture before a [[KGB]] audience, identified Hiss as a Soviet agent during [[World War II]]; meanwhile, the Administrator of Lend-Lease was [[Harry Hopkins]],<ref>[http://www.roosevelt.nl/Content/RSC/docs/Finding%20Aids%20Primary%20Sources/Presidential%20collection/06%20Staff%20Members/Personal%20Papers%20of%20Harry%20Hopkins.pdf Personal Papers of Harry Hopkins (1930-1946)], Roosevelt Study Center</ref> whom [[Iskhak Akhmerov|Akhmerov]], according to Gordievsky, called "the most important of all Soviet war-time agents in the United States."<ref>[[#refAG90|Andrew, Gordievsky 1990]]: 287; [[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 111; [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 212-215; cf. Thomas Fleming, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EyZ3AAAAMAAJ The New Dealers' War: Franklin D. Roosevelt and the War Within World War II]'' (Basic Books, 2001) ISBN 0465024645, pp. 320-321. Upon being “purged” from AAA, Communist ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2850 [PDF 16]) lawyer [[Lee Pressman]] was immediately hired back into the government by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] ([[#refHUAC50.2|HUAC 1950, pt. 2]]: 2849 [PDF 15]), who apparently had little regard for the law: According to Pressman, Hopkins told him, “The first time you tell me I can’t do what I want to do, you’re fired. I’m going to decide what I think has to be done and it’s up to you to see to it that it’s legal.” ([[#refGall99|Gall 1999]]: 32) After carefully examining [[Venona project|Venona]], the late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark identified Hopkins as Soviet agent “19.” Edward Mark, "[http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface?content=a789090332&rt=0&format=pdf Venona's Source 19 and the ‘Trident’ Conference of May 1943: Diplomacy or Espionage?]" ''Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 13, No. 2 (Summer 1998), pp.1-31</ref> Moreover, "the bureaucrat who administered all but singlehandedly that division in the Treasury that was specifically in charge of proposing and overseeing foreign monetary aid, including Lend-Lease," was [[Harry Dexter White]],<ref>Albert Loren Weeks, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=z3hP33KprskC Russia's Life-Saver: Lend-Lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World War II]'' (Lexington Books, 2004) ISBN 0739107364, p. 7</ref>
 
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one of "the most highly placed espionage sources the Soviets ever possessed."<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes and Klehr 2006]]: 66</ref>
 
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[[Image: Soviet-poster.jpg|thumb|left|200 px|World War II U.S. propaganda poster proclaims Soviet Army "fights for FREEDOM." ''Courtesy [http://history.state.gov/milestones/1937-1945/USSoviet Office of the Historian], U.S. Department of State'']]In March 1943, U.S. Army Air Corps Major George R. Jordan opened several [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,854011,00.html black suitcases] leaving the U.S. bound for the [[Soviet Union]]. He found "hundreds of maps, patent documents, blueprints of industrial plants, railroad tables, and top-secret [[U.S. government]] documents," including "five or six [[State Department]] folders, bound with stout rubber bands. Clipped to each was a tab." From one tab, said Jordan, he copied the legend: “From Hiss.” According to Jordan, "I had never heard of Alger Hiss, and made the entry because the folder bearing his name happened to be second in the pile. It contained hundreds of Photostats of what seemed to be military reports."<ref>George Racey Jordan with Richard L. Stokes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Iu9HAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 From Major Jordan's Diaries]'' (New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company, 1952), p. 42</ref>
 
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Jordan’s unlikely story would be corroborated by ex-NKVD agent<ref>[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 191</ref> [[Anna Louise Strong]], code-named "Map."<ref>[[#refHaynes08|Haynes 2008]]: 21</ref> Strong boasted that&mdash;with the help of American millionaire<ref>Gregg Herken, "[http://www.mitpressjournals.org/doi/abs/10.1162/jcws.2009.11.3.68 Target Enormoz: Soviet Nuclear Espionage on the West Coast of the United States, 1942–1950]," ''Journal of Cold War Studies'', Vol. 11, No. 3 (Summer 2009) ISSN 1520-3972, pp. 68-90</ref> Louise Bransten and other “friends of the American Russian Institute” (a [[Attorney General's list|Communist front]])&mdash;she passed at least one shipment of material in [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc black suitcases] to Moscow via Lend-Lease from Gore Field, Montana<ref>Anna Louise Strong, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qnjNAAAAMAAJ Peoples of the USSR]'' (The Macmillan Company, 1944), p. 1</ref>&mdash;the same base where Maj. Jordan was stationed as a Lend-Lease expediter.<ref>Katherine A. S. Sibley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=HNd4AAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 Red Spies in America]'' (Lawrence, Kan.: University Press of Kansas, 2007) ISBN 0700615555, p. 94</ref> These black suitcases were protected by diplomatic immunity<ref>[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/bhbmedia/notes_chap6.doc Notes for Chapter 6], note 124</ref> from FBI searches, having been sealed “under the supervision of the Russian consulate” in San Francisco.<ref>Tracy Strong and Helene Keyssar, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sapZAAAAMAAJ Right in Her Soul: The Life of Anna Louise Strong]'' (Random House, 1983), ISBN 0394516494, p. 208</ref> Bransten was not only a secret member of the Communist Party<ref>[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 88</ref> and a Soviet agent<ref>[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 263</ref> (code-named ''Lyre''),<ref>[[#refHerken03|Herken 2003]]: 129 (cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18mar_pash.pdf 132 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 18 March 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/7jun_corday.pdf 257 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 7 June 1944; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/22jun_greeting_charlotte_corday.pdf 270 KGB San Francisco to Moscow], 22 June 1944</ref> but also the mistress<ref>[[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 257</ref> of [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-diplo&month=0208&week=d&msg=2UO5GGvif1xPsNJ1mNou7A&user=&pw= NKVD San Francisco Station Chief] [[Grigory Kheifets]].
 
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Jordan was U.S. liaison to the Soviet Purchasing Commission, an agency of the Soviet Union; his story would be further corroborated in April 1944, when Victor Kravchenko, economic attaché of that bureau, defected to the U.S.<ref>[[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]] (then Lend-Lease Administrator) and [[John Paton Davies]] urged Roosevelt to forcibly return Kravchenko to the Soviets, but Biddle refused to extradite him. Dennis J. Dunn, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Cm6IH1a4oksC Caught Between Roosevelt & Stalin: America's Ambassadors to Moscow]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1998) ISBN 0813120233, p. 236. Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 219</ref> He described preparing a shipment of "black suitcases" carrying industrial espionage to the Soviet Union via Lend-Lease,<ref>Richard Rhodes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=f113iCcn87wC Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb]'' (Simon and Schuster, 1996) ISBN 0684824140, p. 101. Romerstein and Breindel reproduce a 1943 receipt for a Lend-Lease shipment of uranium, ordered by [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]], sent to the Soviet Union via Great Falls. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein and Breindel, 2001]]: 468</ref> and released a statement warning:
 
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{{cquote|I cannot keep silent any longer.... I can no longer support double-faced political maneuvers... toward collaboration with the [[United States]] and [[Britain]] while pursuing aims incompatible with such collaboration.
 
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The [[Soviet]] Government has dissolved the [[Communist International]] but only in form.... The new democratic terminology is only a maneuver... to promote the inclusion of [[Communist]]s, obedient to the [[Kremlin]], in the future Governments... of Italy, Austria and [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,885439,00.html other countries].<ref>In 1966, Kravchenko would be found [http://www.americansterling.com/ASPL_Film_Defector.asp shot] to death in his Manhattan apartment. Although his [[death]] would be ruled a [[suicide]], his [http://www.nytimes.com/1992/01/04/us/first-meeting-for-two-sons-of-a-defector.html sons maintain] that he [http://www.latimes.com/la-tm-kravchenko11may11,0,6020141,full.story was executed] by a [http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2960709.stm SMERSH] assassination squad.</ref>}}
 
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===Yalta===
 
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On New Year's Day, 1945, [[Secretary of State]] [http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/stettinius-edward-reilly Edward R. Stettinius, Jr.] told [[Harry Hopkins|Hopkins]]  that he had a meeting scheduled for the next day with [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]], to which he was to bring "people who would be involved in the forthcoming [[Yalta conference|conferences" at Yalta]], in [[Soviet]] [[Crimea]]. [[FDR]] "did not want to have anyone accompany him in an advisory capacity," but Stettinius told Hopkins he felt "Messrs. Bowman<ref>Isaiah Bowman, the president of Johns Hopkins University [http://www.jhu.edu/~jhumag/0900web/red.html who hired] [[Owen Lattimore]]</ref> and Alger Hiss ought to go."<ref>[[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://images.library.wisc.edu/FRUS/EFacs/1945/XL/0525.gif 439]</ref>
 
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Hiss served as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol48no4/alger_hiss.html aide to] Stettinius, who was considered in some quarters to be "not very bright," according to Ambassador Ellis Briggs.<ref>Ellis Briggs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=2pflY3LYw88C Proud Public Servant: The Memoirs of a Career Ambassador]'' (Kent State University Press, 1998) ISBN 0873385888, p. 197</ref> State Department [http://pqasb.pqarchiver.com/washingtonpost/access/468607241.html?dids=468607241:468607241&FMT=ABS&FMTS=ABS:FT chief of security and consular affairs] Samuel D. Boykin agreed that Stettinius "was not brilliant." But, he added, the Secretary had the ability to utilize [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field(DOCID+mfdip2004boy03) "other people's brains"]. The brain Stettinius most depended upon was that of his [[#refFoote|aide]], the [[#refLindPump|brilliant]] Alger Hiss. [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/panuchja.htm J. Anthony Panuch], Deputy Assistant Secretary of State in charge of security,<ref>[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9 (PDF 15)</ref> noted that "Hiss exercises [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/svengali Svengali]-like influence over the mental processes of Junior Stettinius."<ref>Panuch to Russell, March 7, 1946 ([[#refSISS13|SISS pt. 13]]: 853 [PDF 19]). Cf. Louis Francis Budenz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IkqboMAiCkkC The Techniques of Communism]'' (New York: Ayer Publishing, 1977) ISBN 0405099428, p. 287. Dean Acheson subsequently forced Panuch, not Hiss, out of the State Department. ([[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 [PDF 15-16])</ref> Indeed, Stettinius gave Hiss control over [[FDR]]'s access to information, directing that "all memoranda for the President on topics to be discussed at the Meeting of the Big Three should be in the hands of Mr. Alger Hiss not later than Monday, January 15."<ref>Rothwell to Rockefeller, January 10, 1945, [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&id=FRUS.FRUS1945&page=42&isize=XL 42], cf. [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&id=FRUS.FRUS1945&page=441&isize=XL p. 441]</ref>
 
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[[image:Yaltaconference.JPG|thumb|300px|right|At Yalta, a [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424052748703580904574638352930354872.html withered and diminished] Roosevelt flanked by Stettinius (left) and Hiss (right); Churchill (foreground right, three-quarters back view); Stalin in shadows (far left). ''Courtesy [http://www.un.org/UN50/Photos/un50-016.gif United Nations Department of Public Information]'']]By this time, "[[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] was not always master over his mind," according to Professor Felix Wittmer, a [http://www.biblio.com/books/225432106.html refugee from Nazi persecution].<ref>Felix Wittmer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6hFWAAAAYAAJ The Yalta betrayal: data on the decline and fall of Franklin Delano Roosevelt]'' (Caxton Printers, 1953), p. 48</ref> "At Yalta he could neither think consecutively nor express himself coherently," agreed former Soviet propagandist<ref>David C. Engerman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=UkFlO7hoxOMC Modernization from the other shore: American intellectuals and the romance of Russian development]'' (Harvard University Press, 2003) ISBN 0674011511, p. 201</ref> W.H. Chamberlin. With less than three months to live, the President suffered "occa­sional blackouts of memory, and loss of capacity for mental concen­tration."<ref>William Henry Chamberlin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=JGQhAAAAMAAJ America's Second Crusade]'' (Regnery, 1950) ASIN 0865977070, p. 206. Cf. Rose McDermott, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=N_G-wELa3xYC Presidential Leadership, Illness, and Decision Making]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008) ISBN 0521882729, pp. 96-110; Bert Edward Park, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hSnUtD0-nWIC Ailing, Aging, Addicted: Studies of Compromised Leadership]'' (University Press of Kentucky, 1993) ISBN 0813118530, pp. 200, 207</ref> His face was "gray, gaunt, and sagging and the muscles controlling the lips seemed to have lost part of their function," wrote [[New Deal]] [[liberal]]<ref>Nathaniel Burt, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=L9ueb6r1uXgC The perennial Philadelphians: the anatomy of an American aristocracy]'' (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1999) ISBN 0812216938, p. 35</ref> John Gunther. "I felt certain that he was going to die."<ref>John Gunther, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=pRd3AAAAMAAJ Roosevelt in retrospect: a profile in history]'' (Harper, 1950), p. 29</ref> According to James Farley, former Chairman of the Democratic National Committee:
 
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{{cquote|In our evaluation of President Roosevelt, Cordell Hull and I agreed that he was a sick man at Yalta and should not have been called upon to make decisions affecting this country and the world. Physical illness, we knew, taxed his mind and left him in no shape to bargain with such hard bargainers as the Russians...<ref>James A. Farley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xebpf5ccGHkC Jim Farley's Story - The Roosevelt Years]'' (Read Books, 2007) ISBN 1406724548, p. 376</ref>}}
 
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Roosevelt's cardiologist agreed: At the conference, Roosevelt “was obviously greatly fatigued,” he observed. “His color was very poor (gray).”<ref>Edward Shorter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3scUP7B_R7kC Doctors and Their Patients: A Social History]'', 3rd Ed. (Transaction Publishers, 1991) ISBN 088738871X, p. 100</ref> Dr. Roger Lee, then president of the American Medical Association, wrote during Yalta that Roosevelt “was irascible and became very irritable if he had to concentrate his mind for long. If anything was brought up that wanted thinking out he would change the subject.”<ref>[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276</ref> ''Chicago Tribune'' reporter Orville Dwyer reported that Dr. Louis E. Schmidt, a confidante of Roosevelt’s daughter Anna, informed him that at Yalta FDR suffered frequent brain seizures, during which
 
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{{cquote|he would be unconscious (completely out) although sitting up and apparently functioning for periods of from a few seconds to several minutes. Dr Schmidt said he has no doubt from his conversations with Anna that these were occurring regularly at the time he was meeting with Churchill and Stalin and holding other momentous conferences of the utmost importance to the United States.  He said the effect would be that he would be cognizant of what was going on, then suddenly lose the thread completely for anywhere from a few seconds to two or three minutes&mdash;and that he could not possibly have known what was going on in between.<ref>Steven Lomazow , "[http://hnn.us/articles/126978.html The Truth About 'The Sick Man At Yalta']," History News Network (George Mason University), May 24, 2010</ref>}}
 
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“The President seemed placid and frail,” wrote [[Winston Churchill]]. “I felt that he had a slender contact with life.”<ref>Sir Winston Churchill, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M_6cljKX0uUC Triumph and Tragedy]'' (New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 1986) ISBN 0395410606, p. 348</ref> "Winston is puzzled and distressed," noted Churchill's physician. "The President no longer seems to the P.M. to take an intelligent interest in the war; often he does not seem even to read the papers the P.M. gives him."<ref>This may have been due to FDR's "inability to follow the text," perhaps due to "a dysfunction in the right posterior portion of the brain." Claude R. Marx, "[http://www.boston.com/ae/books/articles/2010/01/02/a_journalist_and_neurologist_examine_fdrs_deadly_secret/ A Second Opinion on FDR’s Condition]," ''Boston Globe'', January 2, 2010. Cf. Steven Lomazow and Eric Fettmann, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=usRaPgAACAAJ FDR's Deadly Secret]'' (PublicAffairs, 2010) ISBN 1586487442</ref> He commented:
 
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{{cquote|Everyone seemed to agree that the President had gone to bits physically....He intervened very little in discussions, sitting with his mouth open....I doubt, from what I have seen, whether he is fit for his job here.<ref>Jerrold M. Post and Robert S. Robins, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SvU-aEsPWdoC When Illness Strikes the Leader: The Dilemma of the Captive King]'' (Yale University Press, 1995) ISBN 0300063148, p. 26</ref> To a doctor's eye, the president appears a sick man. He has all the symptoms of hardening of the arteries of the brain in an advanced stage....<ref>[[#refWilson2002|Wilson 2002]]: 276-277</ref>}}
 
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In [http://books.google.com/books?id=jVZ-AAAACAAJ his memoirs], Churchill's bodyguard Walter Thompson would later recall seeing the Prime Minister
 
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{{cquote|weeping over the concessions Roosevelt made to Stalin at Yalta in 1945. "Why, Thompson, did they allow the president, almost dying on his feet, to be there?" he [Churchill] asked. "[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/article581067.ece All Europe will suffer from the decisions made at Yalta]."}}
 
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====China====
 
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During pre-conference negotiations with British Foreign Secretary Anthony Eden, regarding the war with Japan, "Mr. Hiss brought up the question of China," according to Stettinius, "and stressed the importance which the United States attaches to U.S.-British-Soviet encouragement and support for an agreement between the [[Comintern|Commintern]] [sic] and the Chinese Congress [sic]."<ref>[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 229. The official State Department record uses the passive voice to expunge Hiss's role in this maneuver: "The desirability of unity being achieved between the [[Kuomintang]] and the [[Communists]] was raised, and reference was made to the President having some doubts as to whether the British desired this unity." Meeting of the Foreign Ministers, February 1, 1945, 10:30 A.M., on Board H. M. S. "Sirius" in Grand Harbor. [[#refFRUS45|FRUS 1945]]: [http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=goto&id=FRUS.FRUS1945&isize=XL&submit=Go+to+page&page=502 502] Press accounts relying on this bowdlerized official account thus reported, e.g.: "Alger Hiss, whose role at the Yalta conference long has been a subject for hostile speculation, spent his time there [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F40C11F6345A107A93CAA81788D85F418585F9 exclusively on planning for the United Nations]."</ref> The British, due to their interests in Hong Kong and Singapore, had influence with the [[Kuomintang]], but none with the [[Communists]]; the Soviets, who did have influence with the Communists, were not present (because they were [http://avalon.law.yale.edu/subject_menus/smenu.asp not at war with Japan]). The only effect Hiss had in bringing up the issue therefore was to co-opt the British to pressure the Chinese government into acquiescing to a [[Kremlin]]-backed power-sharing arrangement with the rebels, thus granting a measure of legitimacy to forces dedicated to its destruction&mdash;a policy that Acheson would subsequently use as a pretext to obstruct aid to China<ref>After failing to get aid to China cut off officially, Acheson would instruct his subordinates in 1949 that "it is desirable that shipments be delayed where possible to do so without formal action." (David S. McLellan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SfJ2AAAAMAAJ Dean Acheson: the State Department years]'' [New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1976] ISBN 0396073131, p. 188) After the fall of China, Senator John F. Kennedy would comment: "Mr. Speaker, over this weekend we have learned the extent of the disaster that has befallen China and the United States. The responsibility for the failure of our foreign policy in the Far East rests squarely with the [Truman] White House and the [Acheson] Department of State. The continued insistence that aid would not be forthcoming unless a coalition government with the Communists was formed, was a crippling blow to the National Government. So concerned were our diplomats and their advisers, the [[Owen Lattimore|Lattimore]]s and the Fairbanks, with the imperfection of the democratic system in China after twenty years of war, and the tales of corruption in high places, that they lost sight of our tremendous stake in a non-Communist China." John F. Kennedy, ''A Compendium of Speeches, Statements, and Remarks Delivered During His Service in the Congress of the United States'' (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1964), pp. 41-42. Cf. [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 419</ref>&mdash;a move that would prove [http://www.orthodoxytoday.org/articles5/RummelDemocide.php catastrophic for the Chinese].<ref>After the fall of the Nationalist Chinese government, Communist Chinese dictator Mao Zedong "was responsible for [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1069136,00.html well over 70 million] deaths in peacetime, more than any other 20th-century leader," according to Jung Chang, a former [http://chineseculture.about.com/od/mediainchina/p/Writer-Jung-Chang.htm member of Mao's Red Guards]. [[#refChang05|Chang 2005]]: 3, 560, 651. Cf. Stephane Courtois et al., ''[http://www.hup.harvard.edu/catalog.php?isbn=9780674076082 The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression]'' (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1999) ISBN 9780674076082, p. 4.</ref>
 
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Ultimately, [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] made a secret agreement with [[Stalin]] ([[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] was [http://www.pbs.org/behindcloseddoors/in-depth/the-conferences.html#Argonaut2 not informed]), giving [[Moscow]] rights to the main Manchurian railroad and territory in northern China.<ref>Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=XjW49VTRhxQC The End of the Pacific War: Reappraisals]'' (Stanford University Press, 2007) ISBN 0804754276, p. 156</ref> U.S. Ambassador to China Patrick J. Hurley resigned in protest,<ref>Laura Tyson Li, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tnbMSIL077wC Madame Chiang Kai-Shek: China's Eternal First Lady]'' (Open City Books, 2006) ISBN 0871139332, p. 267</ref> alleging the existence of a "Communist conspiracy within the State Department."<ref>Don Lohbeck, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=eJ44AAAAIAAJ Patrick J. Hurley]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1956), p. 447</ref> Hiss would later deny under oath any role in China policy at Yalta, or in the subsequent State Department proclamation calling for "peace and unity with the Communists in China," saying "It was not in my area of activity at all." Hiss admitted that he "had been connected with far eastern affairs before," but protested that after "about February 1944 [a year before he "stressed the importance" of unity with the Communists], I was assigned to United Nations work and specialized entirely in that field thereafter."<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 657 (PDF 167)</ref>
 
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===='Traitors'====
 
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The Soviets, already [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/24may_roosevelt.pdf covertly informed] of Roosevelt's declining health, bugged the U.S. quarters, and [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol49no3/html_files/FDR_Teheran_12.htm listened avidly].<ref>At Teheran, Roosevelt actually chose to stay in the Soviet embassy, because it had [[#refBlack06|larger quarters]].</ref> On [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono February 4, 1945], Hiss accompanied [[FDR]] to his meeting with [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] and [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]. According to Robert Louis Benson, former Technical Director for Counterintelligence at the National Security Agency<ref>[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/SYMP_2009_agenda.pdf Agenda], 2009 Cryptologic History Symposium, Center for Cryptologic History (National Security Agency - Central Security Service), p. 3</ref> (NSA), and Cecil Phillips, a cryptanalyst who was instrumental in [[#refBenson95|cracking the Soviet code]], "The Russians came to the table with ample knowledge of our purposes and attitudes, through information provided to them by traitors whose deeds ultimately were revealed in [[Venona project|Venona]]."<ref>[[#refBP95|Benson, Phillips 1995]]: 13</ref> But Venona is not the only source: According to Harvard historian [http://history.fas.harvard.edu/people/faculty/plokhii.php Serhii Plokhii], "New evidence from the Soviet archives supports the thesis that Hiss was a Soviet spy at the time of the Yalta Conference."<ref>Serhii Plokhy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0wOKfjnXdAUC Yalta: The Price of Peace]'' (Penguin, 2010) ISBN 0670021415, "Introduction"</ref> "One of the officials [at Yalta] we had established confidential relations with was Alger Hiss," who was, according to Sudoplatov,  "highly sympathetic to the interests of the Soviet Union."<ref>[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227</ref> According to confidential [[GRU]] sources, during the conference, Hiss gave daily briefings to Stalin's military adviser, General Mikhail Abramovich Milshtein (deputy director of the GRU), revealing not only the American negotiating strategy but insights into the attitudes of the American negotiators.<ref>[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 130</ref> Sudoplatov added:
 
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{{cquote|In conversation, Hiss disclosed to [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,851866,00.html Oumansky], and then Litvinov,<ref>Hugh D. Phillips, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qjWPAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Between the Revolution and the West: A Political Biography of Maxim M. Litvinov]'' (New York: Westview Press, 1992) ISBN 0813310385</ref> official U.S. attitudes and plans; he was also very close to our sources who were cooperating with Soviet intelligence and to our active intelligence operators in the United States. Within this framework of exchange of confidential information were references to Hiss as the source who told us the Americans were prepared to make a deal in Europe.<ref>[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 227</ref>}}
 
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====Poland====
 
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When [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] asked the [[Secretary of State]] "to get a lawyer to consult with him over the wording of the Polish boundary statement," wrote Stettinius, "I called Alger Hiss."<ref>Edward R. Stettinius, Jr., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IjhQ_gsiCzwC Roosevelt and the Russians]'' (Whitefish, Mont.: Kettinger Publishing, 2005) ISBN 1419103105, p. 270</ref> The U.S. ended up ceding eastern Poland to the Soviet Union,<ref>[[#refDallas05|Dallas 2005]]: 557</ref> [http://politicom.moldova.org/news/moscow-attempts-to-reinterpret-the-molotovribbentrop-pact-203326-eng.html essentially ratifying] what Eden called [[#refBlack06|the "Ribbentrop-Molotov" line]]&mdash;the deal [[Stalin]] had made with [[Adolf Hitler|Hitler]] in the [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=va2.document&identifier=5034E8A8-96B6-175C-955B60FB1DA40BCC&sort=Coverage&item=Soviet%20Union secret protocols] of the [[Nazi-Soviet pact]]. As [http://www.pulitzer.org/citation/2004-General-Nonfiction Pulitzer prize winning] [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/opinions/biographies/anne-applebaum.html ''Washington Post'' columnist] Anne Applebaum put it, Yalta "went beyond mere recognition of Soviet occupation and conferred legality and international acceptance on [http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/05/10/AR2005051001187.html new borders and political structures]." It was agreed to keep these plans [[#refBlack06|entirely secret]]. U.S. Ambassador to Poland Arthur Bliss Lane resigned in protest: "As I glanced over [[#refYalta45|the document]], I could not believe my eyes," he wrote. "To me, almost every line spoke of a surrender to Stalin."<ref>Arthur Bliss Lane, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SzQrAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 I Saw Poland Betrayed: An American Ambassador Reports to the American People]'' (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill Co., 1948) ASIN B000NWTIF8, p. 56. When Truman became President and saw the secret codicils, he was "amazed the Polish agreement 'wasn't more clear cut'." Wilson D. Miscamble, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QWc58mXB5uUC From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2007) ISBN 0521862442, p. 112</ref>
 
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====Other secret agreements====
 
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Another secret agreement<ref>According to Hiss, the agreement to give the Soviets three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. “was not put in the [[#refYalta45|communiqué]]" containing the public Yalta agreement. It was, he said, an "oral agreement ... that the Russians would bring their two delegations [''sic''&mdash;actually three delegations&mdash;the Soviet Union, Ukraine, and Byelorussia] to [the UN Charter Conference in] San Francisco, propose them for admission [to the United Nations], and we [the United States] would agree. But it would not be announced in advance.” [[#refYUNHiss|YUN 1990]]: 18 (PDF 19)</ref> gave the [[Soviet Union]] three votes in the UN to one for the U.S. Later urging [[Franklin Roosevelt|Roosevelt]] to tell the [[U.S.]] delegation to the UN founding conference "the whole truth" about this agreement (which he called "this X-matter"), Stettinius would advise [[FDR]] to have Hiss with him when he broke the news to the [[American]] delegates.<ref>[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 305-306</ref> The President would be dead within a month; this agreement would not be disclosed for another two years.<ref>Michael Kort, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xAnwfRnsl6oC The Columbia Guide to the Cold War]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001) ISBN 0231107730, p. 179</ref>
 
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According to [http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James F. Byrnes], then director of the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion, he and others returned from Yalta to Washington on February 10, but Roosevelt stayed behind with a select few&mdash;including Hiss:
 
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{{cquote|We expected the conference would end that evening and that the President would leave the following day. But that afternoon Stalin requested the President to remain one more day. He said they could not conclude their work and he wished to discuss some matter he deemed important. The President complied.... [T]he protocols... were signed on February 11.
 
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When the President returned, he did not mention it to me and the protocol was kept locked in his safe at the White House.}}
 
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Only after [[FDR|Roosevelt]]'s death would Byrnes, by then Secretary of State, learn&mdash;due to "a news story from Moscow," he wrote&mdash;of "the full agreement."<ref>James Francis Byrnes, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OCQqAAAAYAAJ Speaking Frankly]'' (Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 1974) ISBN 0837174805, pp. 42-43</ref>
 
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Although the conference ended February 11, [http://hansard.millbanksystems.com/commons/1947/mar/24/yalta-and-potsdam-agreements-publication yet another] "secret codicil" was added on March 31, less than two weeks before [[FDR]]'s death. This agreement would [http://www.jstor.org/pss/2149110 force] the "[http://www.hillsdale.edu/news/imprimis/archive/issue.asp?year=1988&month=12 repatriation]" of some [[#refHornberger95|two million]] refugees ([http://www.capitalcentury.com/1945.html including] [[#refHerman95|1.5 million POWs]]) to the Soviet Union for [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/lubini.htm slave labor]<ref>[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/documents/cab_195_3_transcript.pdf U.K. War Cabinet Minutes], June 11, 1945, p. 182</ref> or [[#refHerman95|death in the Gulag]].<ref>"V. REPARATION: The following protocol has been approved: Protocol: On the Talks Between the Heads of Three Governments at the Crimean Conference on the Question of the German Reparations in Kind... 2. Reparation in kind is to be exacted from Germany in... (c) [[#refYalta45|Use of German labor]]." "Stalin then brought up the question of reparations in kind and in manpower.... The latter, of course, referred to forced labor.... [T]he Russians were using many thousands of prisoners in what was reported to be virtual slave camps...." William D. Leahy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=e-dmAAAAMAAJ I Was There: The Personal Story of the Chief of Staff to Presidents Roosevelt and Truman, Based on His Notes and Diaries Made at the Time]'' (Whittlesey House, 1950), p. 302. Cf. Nikolai Tolstoy, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=u-dvAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 The Secret Betrayal]'' (New York: Scribner, 1978) ISBN 0684156350; Julius Epstein, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_3kNAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Operation Keelhaul: The Story of Forced Repatriation from 1944 to the Present]'' (Old Greenwich, Conn.: Devin-Adair Co., 1973) ISBN 978-0815964070. Stettinius apparently paid little attention to the issue, evidently leaving the details up to Hiss: When historian Walter Johnson asked him about the Yalta agreement on slave labor, Stettinius referred him to Hiss. ERS and WJ, November 13, 1948, Edward R. Stettinius Jr. Papers, [http://www2.lib.virginia.edu/small/collections/manuscripts_and_rare_books.html Albert and Shirley Small Special Collections Library], University of Virginia</ref> That agreement was kept secret from the American people [[#refHornberger95|for 50 years]]. As Chamberlin concluded:
 
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{{cquote|The Yalta Agreement … represented, in two of its features, the endorsement by the United States of the principle of human slavery. One of these features was the recognition that German labor could be used as a source of reparations … And the agreement that Soviet citizens who were found in the Eastern zones of occupation should be handed over to Soviet authorities amounted, for the many Soviet refugees who did not wish to return, to the enactment of a fugitive slave law.<ref>William Henry Chamberlin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hZ12AAAAMAAJ Beyond Containment]'' (H. Regnery Co., 1953), p. 42</ref>}}
 
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Asked if he had "drafted or participated in the drafting" of parts of the Yalta agreement, Hiss would testify, "I think it is accurate and not an immodest statement to say that I did to some extent, yes."<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 656 (PDF 166)</ref>
 
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==='ALES'===
 
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After the conference, Hiss [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|went on]] [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/highlights-of-history/articles/venona to Moscow],<ref>[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64</ref> where he was [[#refToledano01|honored by]] Foreign Minister [[Vyacheslav Molotov|V.M. Molotov]]. According to [http://www.hist.cam.ac.uk/directory/cma1001@cam.ac.uk Cambridge professor Christopher Andrew], the [http://pajamasmedia.com/ronradosh/2009/08/10/the-debate-over-soviet-espionage-what-nicholas-lemann-of-the-new-yorker-gets-wrong/ dean of British historians of Soviet espionage], Soviet "files show that after the Yalta conference [http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/books/non-fiction/article6723449.ece Hiss was secretly awarded the order of the Red Star] during a visit to Moscow."<ref>[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 278; Robert L. Beisner, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=D9Zb_feBUdkC Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War]'' (Oxford University Press, 2006) ISBN 0195045785, p. 282; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226; [[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 131</ref> In 2006, the [http://www.nytimes.com/1994/05/06/opinion/l-do-us-files-hold-more-atom-spy-secrets-a-coherent-story-012505.html official newspaper] of the Russian Ministry of Defense, ''[http://www.redstar.ru/ Krasnaya Zvezda]'' (''Red Star''), confirmed that five members of a [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] apparatus in Washington (one of whom had been a [[GRU]] source in the 1930s, and had access to high-level intelligence about U.S. foreign policy) received Soviet decorations [[#refHK07|in February 1945]].
 
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On April 25, 1945, [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, reported to NKVD Chief [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,858400-1,00.html Vsevolod Merkulov] that [[Harold Glasser]], a Soviet agent in the [[United States Department of the Treasury|U.S. Treasury]] code-named "Ruble,"<ref>[[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 23; Trans. 44</ref> learned of this award from his friend, "Ales," a GRU agent:
 
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[[Image:Hissetal.jpg|thumb|300 px|Vishinskii (2nd from left), Molotov (5th from left), Stettinius (7th from left), Alger Hiss (right), ca. January 1945. ''Image courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]{{cquote|According to data from [[Anatoly Gorsky|Vadim]] the group of agents of the [[GRU|"military" neighbors]] whose part [[Harold Glasser|Ruble]] was earlier, recently was decorated with orders of the USSR. Ruble learned about this fact from his friend Ales, who is the head of the mentioned group.<ref>[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev  1999]]: 269</ref>}}
 
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This memo apparently refers to [[Venona project|Venona]] [[#refVenona1822|decrypt 1822]], dated March 30, 1945, in which "Vadim" ([[Anatoly Gorsky]]) reports,<ref>The translation used here is that of [[#refSchindler05|John R. Schindler]]. Cf. Eric
 
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Breindel, "Goodies from the Venona files: Hiss’ Guilt," ''The New Republic'', April 15, 1996, reprinted in [http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/pdf/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.pdf ''The Congressional Record'' Vol. 142, No. 50] (April 18, 1996), pp. H03644-H03645 (PDF pp. 5-6)</ref> following up on a conversation with "Ales," that "Ales has been working with the neighbors [GRU]<ref>John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=H-Diplo&month=0501&week=a&msg=obaTGXSrsBmHu2ps7TI6fA&user=&pw= KGB sources and the Hiss/'Ales' dispute], H-Diplo Discussion Logs, Humanities and Social Sciences Net Online (Michigan State University), January 5, 2005</ref> continuously since 1935"; that for "a few years now he has been the director of a small group of probationers [agents]<ref>[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 17, 29 (PDF 19, 31)</ref> of the neighbors for the most part drawn from his relatives";<ref>[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]</ref> that recently, "Ales and his whole group were awarded Soviet medals"; and that after "the Yalta conference, back in Moscow, one very high-ranking Soviet worker allegedly had contact with Ales (Ales implied that it was Comrade [[Andrey Vyshinsky|Vyshinskii]]) and at the request of the [[GRU|military neighbors]] he conveyed to him their thanks, etc." Regarding "Ales," one FBI memo reports:
 
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{{cquote|It would appear likely that this individual is Alger Hiss in view of the fact that he was in the State Department and the information from Chambers indicated that his wife, Priscilla, was active in Soviet espionage and he also had a brother, Donald, in the State Department. It also is to be noted that Hiss did attend the Yalta conference as a special adviser to President Roosevelt, and he would, of course, have conferred with high officials of other nations attending the conference.<ref>FBI memo: Belmont to Ladd, May 15, 1950 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/VENONA.pdf FBI file: Venona]), p. 8 (PDF p. 11); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 137</ref>}}
 
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In its unanimous final report in 1997, the bipartisan [[Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy]] agreed regarding Ales, "This could only be Alger Hiss."<ref>[[#refMoyComA|Moynihan Commission Appendix A]]: A-34 (PDF 36). After it had been classified for half a century, the late [[Senator]] [[Daniel Patrick Moynihan]] ([[Democratic Party|D.]]-[[New York|N.Y.]]) “asked that [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/directors-and-deputy-directors-of-central-intelligence/deutch.html Deutch] discuss with the [[NSA]] what the status of [[Venona project|Venona]] was and whether its secrecy might no longer be necessary… [O]n July 11, 1995… the heads of the [[CIA]], [[FBI]], and NSA, along with Senator Moynihan, jointly announced that Venona was being opened…” ([[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 5-6) In his book ''Secrecy'', Moynihan, a [http://www.nytimes.com/1997/02/23/weekinreview/the-rehabilitation-of-morning-in-america.html liberal Democrat], concluded "Hiss was indeed a [[USSR|Soviet]] agent and appears to have been regarded by [[Moscow]] as its most important. Parts of the [[United States government|American government]] had [[conclusion|conclusive]] [[evidence]] of his guilt, but they never told." ([[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 146)</ref> Analysts at the NSA have also gone on record that [http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html Ales could only have been Alger Hiss]. The late U.S. Air Force historian Eduard Mark called the FBI and NSA's conclusions "eminently reasonable," writing that the evidence showed that "ALES was ''very probably'' Hiss."<ref>[[#refMark03|Mark 2003]]: 54–55, 57–88, 62, 64 (italics in original).</ref> John R. Schindler, professor of strategy at the Naval War College and himself a former NSA analyst, agrees, calling this identification "[[#refSchindler05|exceptionally solid]]" and the evidence "compelling." [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol46no4/article09.html John Ehrman] of the [[CIA]]'s Directorate of Intelligence concurs, "it is clear that [[#refEhrmanSI51.4|Hiss alone remains the best candidate to be ALES]]." Christopher Andrew, writing with [http://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/23/world/europe/23poison.html ex-KGB agent] Vasili Mitrokhin, says the identification of "Ales" as Hiss is "beyond reasonable doubt."<ref>[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 599</ref> The codename Ales, concludes Mark Kramer, [http://daviscenter.fas.harvard.edu/research_portal/hpcws.html director of the Project for Cold War Studies] at [[Harvard University]], "seems to fit [http://hnn.us/roundup/entries/37819.html only Hiss]."
 
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[[Image:Hiss2.jpg|thumb|left|300 px|The name "Alger Hiss" in English, from Vassiliev's notes on Perlo's March 15, 1945 list to Moscow Center. ''Image courtesy [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]On March 15, [[Victor Perlo]] ([http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page59.html code-named "Raid"]) gave Moscow (in English) a list of people not in his "[[Perlo group]]" whom he knew worked with [[Soviet]] intelligence. Included on that list was the name "Alger Hiss."<ref>[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 14. Cf. [[#refVasWhite3|Vassiliev White Notebook #3]]: Orig. 40; Trans. 78</ref> Five days later, [[State Department]] security officer Raymond Murphy interviewed Chambers. Murphy's notes record that Chambers reiterated his identification of Hiss as a member of the Communist Party underground apparatus, but added that he was also the leader of a cell and not merely a Communist but, said Chambers, an agent of influence who sought to shape U.S. policy "in keeping with the desires of the Communist Party," as well as an [[espionage]] agent who "disclosed much confidential matter."<ref>[[#refSISS16|SISS pt. 16]]: 1182 (PDF 122)</ref>
 
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On March 24, [[FBI]] agent E.A. Tamm, assistant to FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]], alerted Robert Lynch, Special Assistant to the [[Secretary of State]], to [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]' allegations that Hiss had been a member of the underground organization of the [[Communist Party]], and to Hiss's links to [[Nathan Witt]] and [[Lee Pressman]]. After interviewing Hiss the next day,<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 359</ref> FBI official D.M. Ladd furnished Frederick B. Lyon, Chief of the [[State Department]] Division of Foreign Activity Correlation, a summary memorandum outlining this information.<ref>FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss Chambers, Vol. 44)</ref> On March 26, State Department security officer Robert Bannerman sent Donald Russell, Assistant Secretary of State for Administration, a comprehensive secret report on Chambers' allegations regarding Hiss, recommending "that immediate action be taken to terminate Mr. Hiss's services with the Department."<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 364</ref>
 
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===United Nations===
 
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[[Image:AlgerHissUNConference.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Secretary General Alger Hiss presides over the UN Charter Conference, 1945. At his right, Molotov]] Even [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F10C15F73F5B177B93C2AB1789D85F418485F9&scp=1 as the Soviets were decorating "Ales"], Hiss was promoted to become Director of the State Department Office of Special Political Affairs. Shortly thereafter, he was named Secretary-General<ref>[[#refUN46|UN 1946-47]]: 14, 48 (PDF 15, 49)</ref> of the upcoming [[United Nations]] Charter Conference in San Francisco. "As Secretary-General, managing the agenda," reported ''Time'', Hiss "will have a lot to say behind the scenes about [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,775560,00.html who gets the breaks]."
 
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On March 19, [[William J. Donovan|"Wild Bill" Donovan]], director of the [[Office of Strategic Services]] (precursor of the [[CIA]]), offered Stettinius the services of [[OSS]] foreign experts to prepare research studies "on all personnel concerned" in the conference. Hiss "strongly opposed" this proposal, and "vigorously endorsed" the view that OSS "doing espionage work" at the conference would "seriously embarrass us." As a result, "American intelligence work at the conference was sharply limited."<ref>[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 303</ref>
 
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Meanwhile, "Vadim" ([[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]])<ref>[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 90</ref> wanted to meet with "Ales" at the conference, according to [[#refFoote|a cable]] Vassiliev discovered in the Soviet archives. His notes indicate that "Ales" had worked with "Ruble" ([[#refBLH05|Harold Glasser]]) as a member of a group run by "Karl" (Whittaker Chambers).<ref>[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]</ref> The cable adds that "'Ruble' gives 'Ales' an exceptionally good political reference as a member of the [[Communist Party|Comparty]].... completely aware that he is Communist in an illegal position, with all the ensuing consequences," and recommends (according to the notes) that he be approached at the UN conference by "Sergei" (NKVD agent [[Vladimir Pravdin]],<ref>[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 (PDF 34)</ref> then under cover as New York bureau chief of the Soviet news agency TASS)<ref>[[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124; "Pravdin" was actually [[#refKlehr04|Rolland Abbiat, murderer of Ignace Reiss]].</ref> or Gorsky, "alluding either to the password, or to '[[Harold Glasser|Ruble]]', or simply to [[#refHK07|'Ales's' progressive attitudes]]."
 
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[[Image:Hisscharter.jpg|thumb|300 px|left|Hiss arrives in Washington from San Francisco with UN Charter in fireproof [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852292,00.html safe with parachute]. ''Image courtesy United States Air Force'']]In April 1945, at the UN conference, [[Harold Glasser|Glasser]] slipped [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] a warning that the FBI had notified Stettinius that Bureau surveillance had followed a bundle of State Department documents from Washington to New York, where they were photographed, then returned within 24 hours to Washington. Only three people had access to these documents, one of whom was "Ales." Stettinius told "Ales": "I hope it is not you."<ref>[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev  1999]]: 267-268. The [[Communist Party]]'s ardor for the UN was evident that month, when the Party's [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/157923/Eugene-Dennis general secretary] wrote in an [http://politicalaffairs.net/a-new-era-begins/ official organ] of the [[CPUSA]]: "Great popular support and enthusiasm for the United Nations policies should be built up, well organized and fully articulate. But it is necessary to do more than that. The opposition must be rendered so impotent that it will be unable to gather any significant support in the Senate against the United Nations Charter and the treaties which will follow." Eugene Dennis, "Yalta and America's National Unity," [http://books.google.com/books?id=T8kcAAAAIAAJ ''Political Affairs'', Vol. 24] (April 1945), p. 300</ref>
 
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After the conference, Stettinius resigned to become the first [[U.S.]] Ambassador to the [[United Nations]]. His successor as [[Secretary of State]], [http://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/byrnes-james-francis James Byrnes], was immediately "faced with the problem of what he would do with Alger."<ref>William Powell, [http://web.archive.org/web/20070316101732/http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/johnson10june85.pdf UN Interview, Joseph Johnson, June 10, 1985], p. 27 (PDF p. 29), UN Oral History Collection, Yale University Library (Archive)</ref> Byrnes had been "pushed out" of planning the UN conference, according to Stettinius, after [[FDR]] had signaled "that Alger Hiss and I should handle this entirely ourselves."<ref>[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 249</ref>
 
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Byrnes said that [[#refToledano97|despite his categorical instructions]] not to recommend any U.S. citizen for posts in the UN Secretariat, "Hiss forwarded to the UN the resumes of [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F60E1EFE3D59107A93C6AB1788D85F478585F9&scp=130&sq=%22alger%20hiss%22&st=cse nearly 500] people, many of them his confreres at State, as prospective global staffers."<ref>"About 50 of these later showed up on the permanent UN payroll, while more than 200 others got part-time assignments." [[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 159. Cf. [[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)</ref> Many were [[#refToledano97|members of Communist cells]] in the government, whose jobs were at risk under a tightened security program. [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/the-friends-of-dalton-trumbo-11468 The Communist] [[#refGarvin04|Dalton]] [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=9274 Trumbo], a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=27810 thoroughgoing Stalinist], boasted that he had been Stettinius' [http://www.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=32073 ghost-writer] at the conference.<ref>"To Elsie McKeough," Helen Manfull, Ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=uJpbAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 Additional Dialogue: Letters of Dalton Trumbo, 1942-1962]'' (New York: M. Evans and Company, 1970), p. 37</ref> Press accounts attributed the hiring of Trumbo (who would become infamous in 1947 as one of the "Hollywood Ten") [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=950&dat=19500703&id=SrILAAAAIBAJ&sjid=elUDAAAAIBAJ&pg=1706,274693 to Hiss].<ref>[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 110</ref>
 
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Hoping to obtain "control of the entire [[Mediterranean]]," the [[USSR|Soviets]] forced through a [[UN]] resolution demanding "an immediate boycott" of [[Spain]]. But as it gradually became clear that the Soviets were seeking "[[Communist]] expansion world-wide," the [[US]] sought the reversal of this UN resolution. According to William B. Dunham of the [[State Department]]'s Office of Western European Affairs:<ref>United States Civil Service Commission, ''[http://ia700502.us.archive.org/22/items/officialregister1955unit/officialregister1955unit_bw.pdf Official Register of the United States, 1955]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1955), p. 26 (PDF p. 48</ref>
 
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{{cquote|[I]n the State Department... many, especially in the Bureau of UN Affairs.... took every opportunity, tried every dodge, to oppose or at least obstruct as best they could... reversing the UN resolution.... Deputy Assistant Secretary for UN Affairs, Alger Hiss... led the obstructionists there.<ref>William B. Dunham, "[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mfdip:@field%28DOCID+mfdip2004dun03%29 How Did You Get Here from There?: Memoir of a Diplomatic Career]," Foreign Affairs Series, Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, 1996 (Library of Congress)</ref>}}
 
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According to a State Department [[#refCapshaw07|internal security probe]] of Hiss ordered by Byrnes (and made public in 1993),<ref>Sam Tanenhaus, "New Reasons to Doubt Hiss," ''Wall Street Journal'', November 18, 1993</ref> in February 1945, Hiss requested top-secret files from the [[OSS]] on British, Soviet, French and Chinese internal security policies, as well as Far East policy.<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361-362</ref> FBI surveillance at this time found that Hiss also developed "a keen interest in atomic energy" and other matters relating to military intelligence<ref>[[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.</ref>&mdash;all of which was [[#refFoote|well outside]] the purview of his office.<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363</ref> This finding was congruent with a [[Venona]] cable dated the [[#refVenona1822|following month]], in which [[Anatoly Gorsky|Gorsky]] reported that "Ales" and his group were "working on obtaining only military information," since [[GRU|Soviet military intelligence]] "allegedly are not very interested" in "materials about the Bank [United States Department of State]."<ref>[[#refBenson95|Benson 1995]]</ref> Loy Henderson, director of the State Department Office of Near East Affairs (NEA), quietly ordered members of NEA to keep confidential materials and information from Hiss.<ref>H. W. Brands, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=L6V4AAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 Inside the Cold War: Loy Henderson and the Rise of the American Empire, 1918-1961]'' (Oxford University Press, 1991) ISBN 0-19-506707-X, pp. 297-298</ref>
 
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[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/coldwar/index.php?action=chrono On June 26], The [http://www.un.org/en/documents/charter/index.shtml UN Charter] [http://zombietime.com/un60/IMG_1710.JPG was signed] in [[San Francisco]]. Two days later, State Department liaison Lt. [[Andrew Roth]] of the Office of Naval Intelligence was arrested in the ''[[Amerasia]]'' spy case. [[Communist Party]] General Secretary [[Eugene Dennis]] told [[CPUSA]] National Committee member Jack Stachel<ref>[[#refKHA98|Klehr, Haynes, Anderson 1998]]: 45</ref> that Roth suggested that Alger Hiss might be used to quash the case, according to former CPUSA Politburo member Louis Budenz.<ref>FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, January 28, 1949 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 44), p. 30. See also FBI Report: (REDACTED), Security Matter&mdash;C, June 8, 1950, p. 9 ([http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR29.pdf FBI file: Institute of Pacific Relations, Vol 29], PDF p. 16)</ref>
 
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==Defections and Investigations==
 
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===Igor Gouzenko===
 
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[[Image:StetHiss.jpg|thumb|300 px|Stettinius (foreground left) with Alger Hiss (center), ca. January 1945. ''Courtesy Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, National Archives and Records Administration'']]On September 5, 1945, [[GRU]] code clerk Igor Gouzenko defected from the Soviet Embassy in Ottawa, telling the [http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/ Royal Canadian Mounted Police] that one Lt. Kulakov in the office of the Soviet military attaché told him that he had learned in Moscow prior to his departure in May 1945 that an assistant to then U.S. Secretary of State Stettinius was a Soviet spy.<ref>Amy W. Knight, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=29Iq1f_dNekC How the Cold War Began: The Igor Gouzenko Affair and the Hunt for Soviet Spies]'' (New York: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2006) ISBN 0786718161, p. 33; FBI letter: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif Hoover to Lyon, September 24, 1945] (CIA file: Igor Guzenko), reproduced (as [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14.gif Document 14]) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/14d.gif 67]. Asked in 1954 by [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] council Jay Sourwine to identify "the American source of the confidential American policy decisions which were communicated to you [and] through you to Moscow," Gouzenko would repeat that "there was one particular most definite assistant to Stettinius." Bruce Craig, "Matter of Espionage: Alger Hiss, Harry Dexter White and Igor Gouzenko Reassessed," David Stafford and Rhodri Jeffreys-Jones, eds., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4iob0kBAVGAC American-British-Canadian Intelligence Relations, 1939-2000]: Intelligence and National Security'', Vol. 15, Issue 2 (London: Routledge, 2000) ISBN 0714651036, p. 218</ref> Stettinius' aide at the time was Alger Hiss.<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 49 According to Pulitzer Prize winner ([http://takimag.com/article/on_ted_morgan_piers_paul_reads_and_other_greats under the name] [http://www.pulitzer.org/awards/1961 Sanche de Gramont]) Ted Morgan, "We now know, thanks to Venona, that this... was Alger Hiss." [[#refMorgan04|Morgan 2004]]: 267</ref>
 
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Two days later, Canadian Prime Minister [[William Lyon Mackenzie King]] wrote that acting under-secretary of state for external affairs [http://collectionscanada.gc.ca/pam_archives/index.php?fuseaction=genitem.displayItem&lang=eng&rec_nbr=104027&rec_nbr_list=104027,9404,3194639,97961,2675021&back_url=%28http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/lac-bac/result/all-tout.php?module=all&Language=eng&FormName=Fed+Simple+Search&SourceQuery=&ResultCount=5&PageNum=1&MaxDocs=-1&SortSpec=score+desc&Language=eng&SearchIn_1=&Operator_1=AND&SearchIn_2=&SearchInText_2=&Operator_2=AND&SearchIn_3=&SearchInText_3=&Sources_1=amicus&Sources_2=mikan&Sources_3=genapp&Sources_4=web&soundex=on&cainInd=&SearchInText_1=norman+robertson%29 Norman Robertson] told him that Gouzenko’s documents disclosed that “everything was much worse than we would have believed…. Stettinius [had] been surrounded by spies, etc., and the Russian Government [had] been kept informed of all that was being done from that source...”<ref>John Whitney Pickersgill and Donald F. Forster, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sNQBAAAAMAAJ The Mackenzie King Record‎]'' (University of Toronto Press, 1970) ISBN 0802016553, p. 11</ref>
 
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That same day, [[Soviet]] [[UN]] [[Ambassador]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,947456,00.html Andrei Gromyko], in London, told Stettinius, now the new U.S. Ambassador to the UN, that he "would be very happy to see Alger Hiss appointed temporary secretary general"&mdash;and thus a [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,164282,00.html candidate for] the [[#refBogdanor08|first permanent Secretary General]]&mdash;of the [[United Nations]].<ref>[[#refStettinius75|Stettinius 1975]]: 416. Weinstein observes, "The endorsement of a leading American official by the Russians remains practically unique in the annals of Soviet-American diplomacy at this time." [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 361</ref> Gromyko was reiterating a suggestion he had made at the [[San Francisco]] conference the previous April.<ref>[[#refRafalko2-1|Rafalko Vol. 2, Ch. 1]]: 110 (PDF 111). As one scholar comments, "It was astonishing for a Soviet diplomat to propose an [[American]] for what was then the [[UN]]'s highest and most sensitive diplomatic post." Stephen J. Whitfield, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=irSQLb4xiJ8C The Culture of the Cold War]'' (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996) ISBN 0801851955, p. 28</ref>
 
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Also that day, Hiss made an extraordinary proposal that the [[State Department]] create a new post, that of "special assistant for military affairs," linked to his Office of Special Political Affairs,<ref>[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 172; [[#refTanenhaus97|Tanenhaus 1997]]: 519; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 321-322.</ref> thus giving Hiss access to information regarding atomic energy, arms procurement and military intelligence.<ref>[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 86 (fn)</ref> Hiss also proposed a State Department reorganization scheme, under which, wrote Panuch, Hiss would acquire "working control" over the flow of papers within the department. "If this ambitious project should be approved," warned Panuch, "the Hiss group will have achieved infiltration in, or control of" what he identified as "critically strategic points" within State.<ref>[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 9-10 (PDF 15-16). De Toledano observes that this plan would have given Hiss "[http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ virtual control of the State Department]," which would thus, note two commentators, "have taken a long step forward in the direction of becoming an adjunct to the Soviet Foreign Office." William F. Buckley Jr. and L. Brent Bozell, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&photo=/PDFsml_AD/McCarthy_and_His_Enemies-Wm_F_Buckley_Jr-L_Brent_Bozell-1954-421pgs-POL.sml.pdf&id=237 McCarthy and His Enemies: The Record and Its Meaning]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1954) ISBN 0895264722, p. 10 (PDF p. 23)</ref>
 
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Following up on Gouzenko's revelations, Raymond Murphy of the State Department again interviewed Chambers, who repeated that Hiss's assignment was "to mess up policy." On September 25, Walter Winchell again broached the subject on his broadcast, reporting, "It can be categorically stated that the question of the loyalty and integrity of one high American official has been called to the attention of the President."<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 366. Weinstein calls this "a clear reference to Hiss," adding that Winchell was FBI Director [[J. Edgar Hoover]]'s "most intimate journalistic confidante."</ref>
 
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===Elizabeth Bentley===
 
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In November 1945, Father Charles F. Cronin, a priest instructed by the [http://www.usccb.org/ United States Conference of Catholic Bishops] to prepare a study of the spread of Communism in the United States,<ref>John T. Donovan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xhN6dYI6SIcC Crusader in the Cold War: a biography of Fr. John F. Cronin, S.S. (1908-1994)]'' (Peter Lang, 2005) ISBN 0820474134, p. 33</ref> reported, "In the State Department, the most influential Communist has been Alger Hiss."<ref>John F. Cronin, S.S., "[http://mdhistory.net/hiss/cronin-report.pdf The Problem of American Communism in 1945]," p. 49 (PDF p. 58)</ref>
 
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On November 27, the FBI disseminated a secret report to the State Department, the Attorney General, and the Truman White House, reporting Chambers' identification of Hiss as a secret member of the Communist underground apparatus in contact with the Ware group.<ref>FBI Report: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/SOVIET%20REPORT.pdf Soviet Espionage Activities in the United States Between World War I and World War II], November 27, 1945, p. 13</ref> Three days later, defecting Soviet courier [[Elizabeth Bentley]] advised FBI investigators that [[Victor Perlo]] told her that [[Harold Glasser]] had been taken away from the “[[Perlo group]]” and turned over to a Russian “by some American in some governmental agency in Washington.”<ref>Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley (FBI file: [[#refSilv6|Silvermaster, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 173</ref>
 
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[[Image:Red star order.jpg|thumb|125px|left|Alger Hiss and Harold Glasser were awarded the Order of the Red Star for their loyalty to the Soviet Union.]]
 
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Bentley's unlikely account was corroborated by the previously-cited April 25, 1945 memo from [[Pavel Fitin]], head of [[NKVD]] foreign intelligence, to NKVD Chief Vsevolod Merkulov, noting that Glasser had worked for both the [[NKVD]] and [[GRU]]:
 
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{{cquote|Our agent RUBLE, drawn to work for the Soviet Union in May 1937, passed initially through the [[GRU|military "neighbors"]] and then through our station ([[NKVD]]) valuable information on political and economic issues.<ref>[[#refHaunted|Weinstein, Vassiliev  1999]]: 268-269; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 226</ref>}}
 
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Bentley said that [[Charles Kramer]] (who would be identified by both [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,856648,00.html Lee Pressman] and [[#refTime3.3.52|Nathaniel Weyl]] as a member of the [[Ware group]]) told her that the person who had done this “was named Hiss and that he was in the U.S. State Department.”<ref>Statement of Elizabeth Terrell Bentley ([[#refSilv6|Silvermaster file, Vol. 6]]), [[#refSilv6.106|p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]]. Cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 23</ref> She said after "Jack" (Soviet agent Joseph Katz)<ref>Robert J. Lamphere and Tom Shachtman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=IB_ShD9fTcsC The FBI-KGB War: A Special Agent's Story]'' (Atlanta: Mercer University Press, 1995) ISBN 0865544778, p. 296</ref> asked her who Hiss was, she clipped an article in which Hiss was mentioned from the New York daily ''PM'', whose [http://www.ifstone.org/pm.php Washington correspondent], [[I.F. Stone]], was (according to Oleg Kalugin, former head of [[KGB]] operations in the United States) a [[fellow traveller|fellow traveler]]<ref>Oleg Kalugin and Fen Montaigne, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=OqkNAAAACAAJ The First Directorate: My 32 Years in Intelligence & Espionage Against the West]'' (Darby, Penn.: Diane Publishing Company, 1994), ISBN 0788151118, p. 74. According to Stone [http://network.nationalpost.com/np/blogs/fullcomment/archive/2009/06/14/robert-fulford-two-views-on-i-f-stone.aspx hagiographer] D.D. Guttenplan, Stone [[#refGuttenplan09|admitted as much]] himself. As Stone put it in 1989, "In a way, I was half a Jeffersonian and half a [[Marxist]]. I never saw a contradiction between the two, and [http://www.mediaresearch.org/notablequotables/1989/nq19890710.asp I still don't]."</ref> who [http://www.nytimes.com/2006/10/01/books/review/Berman.t.htm?pagewanted=all cooperated with Soviet intelligence] as an "agent of influence."<ref>Myra MacPherson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kP3i6WsQBtsC 'All Governments Lie!': The Life and Times of Rebel Journalist I. F. Stone]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 2006) ISBN 0684807130, p. 327. MacPherson goes on to quote Kalugin explaining that such agents "could shape public opinion, manipulate public opinion," and that Stone "was willing to perform tasks." Stone was identified in the Venona project with the code name "Blin" (Pancake) ([http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_ny_moscow.pdf Index of Cover Names, New York-Moscow Communications], p. 10), an identification confirmed by a 13 April 1936 KGB New York station report. The following month, the station reported that relations with "Pancake" had entered "the channel of normal operational work," meaning that Stone had become a "[[#refHKV5.09|fully active agent]]." ([[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 150) Stone also [[#refVenona1506|met with "Sergei"]], who, under cover as "[[Vladimir Pravdin]]," ([[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 31 [PDF 34]) New York bureau chief of the Soviet government news agency TASS ([[#refSword|Andrew, Mitrokin 2000]]: 124), was actually [[NKVD]] agent [[#refKlehr04|Roland Abbiat]], murderer of Ignace Reiss. [[#refKriv39|Krivitsky 1939]]: 261-263 (PDF 285-287)</ref> Bentley said “It is my present recollection that this newspaper article stated Hiss’ full name was Eugene [sic] Hiss and that he was an adviser to [[Dean Acheson]] in the State Department.”<ref>[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Silvermaster file, Vol. 6, p. 105 (PDF p. 106)]. According to Foreign Service Officer Jacques J. Reinstein, Hiss served as assistant to Acheson. Thomas Dunnigan, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:7:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jacques J. Reinstein], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 5, 2001</ref> FBI investigation quickly closed in on Alger Hiss.<ref>[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page119.pdf 108 (PDF 119)]</ref> This was consistent with the above-cited March 5, 1945 cable,<ref>Alexander Vassiliev’s notes on a cipher telegram from Vadim [Anatoly Gorsky], 5 March 1945, cited in [[#refFoote|Haynes 2007]]</ref> in which Gorsky reports: "‘Ales’ and ‘Ruble’ [Harold Glasser]<ref>[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/undated/kgb_wash_moscow.pdf Index of KGB Covernames: Washington-Moscow Communications], p. 3 (National Security Agency)</ref> used to work in ‘Karl’s’ (Whittaker Chambers)<ref>[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]</ref> informational group, which was affiliated with the neighbors [GRU]."<ref>[[#refVStory|Benson 2001]]: 29 (PDF 31)</ref> Before the end of 1945, a State Department Security memorandum summarized:
 
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{{cquote|Bentley advised that members of this group had told her that Hiss of the State Department had taken Harold Glasser of the Treasury Department, and 2 or 3 others, and had turned them over to direct control by the Soviet representatives in this country. In this regard, attention is directed to Whittaker Chambers' statement regarding Alger Hiss and to the statement by Gouzenko, regarding an assistant to the Secretary of State who was a Soviet agent.<ref>[[#refSISS16|SISS Part 16]]: 1072 (PDF 12)</ref>}}
 
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===Investigations===
 
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On February 9, 1946, [[Stalin]] declared that war was inevitable as long as [[capitalism]] existed, in a speech regarded by some as the open declaration of [[Cold War]].<ref>Walter LaFeber, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WelaCRwAEo4C America, Russia, and the Cold War: 1945-1984]'' (New York: Knopf, 1985) ISBN 0394343913, p. 38</ref> Two days later, ex-[[Communist]] Benjamin Mandel, former manager of the ''Daily Worker'',<ref>Conrad Black, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=0wRK-WPEcfwC Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full]'' (Jackson, Tenn.: PublicAffairs, 2008), ISBN 1586486748, p. 93</ref> identified Alger Hiss to the [[FBI]] as "a [[Communist Party]] member," and one of a "high level group of [[government]] employees who would not be found openly connected with the Party or with any Front organizations and who were specifically instructed not to display such connections."<ref>FBI memo: Hottel to Hoover, February 11, 1946, pp. [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page55.pdf 2]-[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster042_Folder/Silvermaster042_page56.pdf 3] ([http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/Silvermaster.htm FBI file: Silvermaster], [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster042.pdf Vol. 42], pp. 55-56)</ref> The Bureau again interviewed Hiss, who denied ever being a Communist, and denied knowledge of any of his friends being Communists. He did, however, add that he had heard it said that [[Lee Pressman]] was either a Party member or followed the Party line.<ref>[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page121.pdf 110 (PDF 121)]</ref>
 
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[[Image:Roach_to_Ladd_3-14-46.jpg|thumb|300px|FBI reports Byrnes' desire to dismiss Hiss, two years before Chambers' testimony. ''Source: [[#refSilv|FBI Silvermaster file]] [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], [[#refSilv149.40|p. 40]]'']][[Secretary of State]] Byrnes took seriously warnings from [[State Department]] security and the [[FBI]] that evidence existed suggesting that Hiss might be a security risk.<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 98-99</ref> By that spring, Byrnes was persuaded that Hiss was [[#refBogdanor08|working for the Communist Party]]. An FBI memo of March 14 relates a report that Byrnes "stated that HISS is to be given no further consideration for promotion or assignment to responsible duties in the Department," and that he wanted to know whether Hiss could be "dismissed summarily," adding, "Secretary BYRNES is of the definite opinion that ALGER HISS should be disposed of..."<ref>FBI memo: [[#refSilv149.40|Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al.]], March 14, 1946. Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (FBI file: [[#refSilv|Silvermaster]], [[#refSilv149|Vol. 149]], p. 40)</ref>
 
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On May 15, the State Department prepared a Top Secret chart identifying 124 loyalty or security cases on the department payroll, broken down into categories: 77 "suspects," another 13 "[[Communist]]s," an additional 14 "sympathizers," and, most ominously, a further 20 personnel identified as "agents"&mdash;one of whom was Alger Hiss. Two weeks later, FBI Special Agent Mickey Ladd reported to Director Hoover that Panuch reported to the bureau that Alger Hiss was part of “an enormous espionage ring in Washington” working for the Soviets.<ref>[[#refMoynihan98|Moynihan 1998]]: 69</ref> On July 26, Secretary of State Byrnes wrote to Congressman Adolph J. Sabath (D-Ill.) that security screeners had identified 284 State Department employees as unfit for permanent employent; he added that 79 of these had since left the department<ref>[[#refHerman99|Herman 1999]]: 94</ref>&mdash;leaving [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23388 205 still on the payroll]. On August 3, State Department official Samuel Klaus prepared a [http://www.humanevents.com/article.php?id=23478 106-page confidential memo] summarizing security data on each of the cases listed on the May 15 chart.<ref>[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 152-154</ref>
 
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That year, [[British]] intelligence supplied its order of battle against [[Soviet]]-led guerrillas in [[Greece]] to the [[Pentagon]]. Shortly thereafter, this top-secret information appeared in the column of Drew Pearson<ref>Jim Heintze, [http://www.library.american.edu/pearson/biography.html Biography of Drew Pearson], February 9, 2006 (Drew Pearson Papers, American University Library Collections)</ref> (whose reporter, [[David Karr]], was a "competent KGB source"),<ref>Yevgenia Albats, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9PBjk03E814C The State Within a State: The KGB And Its Hold on Russia Past, Present and Future]'' (New York: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux, 1994), pp. 250-251; Yevgenia Albats, "Senator Edward Kennedy Requested KGB Assistance With a Profitable Contract for his Businessman-Friend," ''Izvestia'', June 24, 1992, p. 5. Albats adds that Karr "submitted information to the KGB on the technical capabilities of the United States and other capitalist countries." Cf. [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 139; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 247. See also Venona decrypt [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jul_sammuel_krafsur.pdf 998 KGB New York to Moscow 15 July 1944]. Another Pearson legman, Andrew Older, was identified under oath by FBI undercover operative Mary Markward as a secret member of the Communist Party in Washington, DC. [http://ia600508.us.archive.org/12/items/securitygovernme0102unit/securitygovernme0102unit_bw.pdf Security Hearings Pursuant to S. Res. 40, Part 1], Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations, Committee on Government Operations, United States Senate, 83rd Cong., 1st Sess., August 17-18, 1953 (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), p. 16 (PDF p. 20); cf. Westbrook Pegler, "Close Scansion of Record Discovers Curious Matter," King Features Syndicate and [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=336&dat=19510721&id=rs0KAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jE4DAAAAIBAJ&pg=3702,4106542 ''The Deseret News'', July 21, 1951, p. 2B]</ref> forcing the British army to withdraw, a move that would have delivered Greece to the [[Kremlin]] had not the U.S. intervened. According to de Toledano, “Deputy Assistant Secretary of State J. Anthony Panuch, in charge of security, tracked down the source of the leak. He discovered that Hiss had asked the Pentagon for this information, though it had [[#refToledano97|nothing to do]] with his work as director of the Office of Special Political Affairs.” For his diligence, Panuch would be forced out of the State Department by Under Secretary of State Dean Acheson.<ref>Panuch would testify that "...Under Secretary Acheson called me into his office... and he said... '...I would like your resignation.'" As the [[SISS|Jenner subcommittee]] observed, after Panuch warned his superiors about Hiss, "it was Panuch and not Hiss who was dismissed from the State Department." [[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 10; 10n.15</ref>
 
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State Department security officers discovered that Hiss's desk calendar for September 14, 1946, recorded a meeting Hiss did not schedule through the department (and for which he made no official record) with "McLean [sic], British Emb."<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 363-364</ref> Donald Maclean<ref>[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald.html Donald Maclean], The Spy Museum</ref> was a diplomat at the British Embassy in Washington who was also a [[Soviet]] agent<ref>Exhibit No. 285, Enclosure No. 2 To Despatch No. 418, April 26, 1956, From American Embassy, Canberra, Australia, LS. 1352: Statement of Vladimir Petrov, [http://ia700309.us.archive.org/24/items/scopeofsovietact2730unit/scopeofsovietact2730unit_bw.pdf Scope of Soviet Activity in the United States, Part 28]," Subcommittee To Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, June 6, 1956, p. 1521 (PDF p. 79)</ref> and member of the [[Cambridge Five|Cambridge spy ring]]. He would defect in 1951 to the [[Soviet Union]],<ref>"[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/355048/Donald-Maclean Donald Maclean]," ''The Encyclopedia Britannica'', 2008</ref> where he would be rewarded with the rank of Colonel in the KGB.<ref>"[http://www.spymuseum.com/pages/agent-maclean-donald3.html Agent: Maclean, D.]," The Spy Museum</ref> Another member of that ring, [[Kim Philby]], would likewise defect to [[Moscow]], later writing in his memoir, "it was also the era of Hiss, [[Judith Coplon|Coplon]],<ref>Hayden B. Peake, "[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol47no2_2003/article09.html The Judith Coplon Story]," ''Studies in Intelligence'', vol. 47, no. 2, 2003; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/8jan_judith_coplon.pdf 27 New York to Moscow 8 January 1945]</ref> [[Klaus Fuchs|Fuchs]],<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/bomb/filmmore/reference/primary/fuchsstatement.html Fuchs' confession], "Race for the Bomb" ''The American Experience'' (PBS); [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/15jun_departure_agent_rest.pdf 850 New York to Moscow, 15 June 1944]; </ref> [[Harry Gold|Gold]],<ref>Greg Barker, Director, "[http://www.pbs.org/redfiles/kgb/deep/kgb_deep_bios_detail.htm#Gold The Red Files: Secrets of the Russian Archives Revealed]" (PBS, 1999), ISBN 0-7806-2796-2. Cf. [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/16nov_klaus_fuchs_harry_gold.pdf Venona 1606(a) KGB New York to Moscow 16 November 1944]</ref> [[David Greenglass|Greenglass]],<ref>Rebecca Leung, "[http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/07/14/60II/main563126.shtml The Traitor: David Greenglass Testified Against His Own Sister]," CBS News, July 16, 2003</ref> and [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/12/nyregion/12spy.html?pagewanted=all the brave] [[Julius Rosenberg|Rosenbergs]]<ref>Even their sons now accept that the Rosenbergs were [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/09/17/nyregion/17rosenbergs.html?_r=3&hp&oref=slogin guilty]. Cf. [http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/history/famous-cases/the-atom-spy-case The Atom Spy Case], Federal Bureau of Investigation; Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=QpKjGSHAcaYC The Rosenberg File]'' (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 1997) ISBN 0300072058, pp. 53-58; [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/21sep_recruitment_by_rosenbergs.pdf Venona 1340 KGB New York to Moscow 21 September 1944]</ref>&mdash;not to mention others who are still nameless."<ref>Kim Philby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=duU2kp3RS0gC My Silent War]'' (New York: Random House, Inc., 2002) ISBN 0375759832, p. 150. If Hiss was not a Soviet agent, he was the only one on this list who was not. For Philby to grant him primacy on such a roll of honor (or rogue's gallery) is "suggestive," writes Weinstein, that this [http://www.deseretnews.com/article/4426/ master spy] "evidently either knew or believed" that Hiss was a fellow agent. [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 360, footnote</ref>
 
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That year, over strenuous objections on national-security grounds from the State Department's Office of American Republics Affairs (and the government of Panama), the U.S. government reported to the [[United Nations]] on the Panama Canal Zone as "occupied territory," a [[propaganda]] coup for the [[Soviet]]s. According to Assistant Secretary of State for Latin American Affairs [[#refTime11.5.45|Spruille Braden]]:
 
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{{cquote|We then tried to run it down, and we found that this report had been submitted and the employment of the words "occupied territory" by the Office of Special Political Affairs, that is to say, Mr. Alger Hiss.<ref>Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate, [http://www.archive.org/download/interlockingsubv1920unit/interlockingsubv1920unit_bw.pdf Interlocking subversion in Government Departments, Part 19-20] (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1953), 1365 (PDF p. 25)</ref>}}
 
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Secretary of State James Byrnes told the FBI he would have fired Hiss, but for the mandatory Civil Service Commission hearing, which would have revealed confidential sources on the case.<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 43</ref>
 
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In November 1946, the Bureau disseminated to the State Department, Attorney General and Truman White House yet another secret report, this time reporting Bentley's allegations regarding "Eugene Hiss," suggesting that this might actually be a reference to Alger Hiss.<ref>[[#refNKVD|NKVD]]: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf 109 (PDF 120)]</ref> Hoover asked President Truman for permission to take action against Hiss, but Truman (according to a former chief of [[CIA]] [[Soviet]] bloc counterintelligence)<ref>[http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300121988 Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games], Yale University Press</ref> remained "stubbornly antagonistic" to the allegations.<ref>[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273</ref>
 
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That month, for the first time since the [http://www.ashbrook.org/publicat/oped/busch/06/1946.html elections of 1928], the [[Republican Party|Republicans]] had won control of both houses of Congress, in a campaign charging the [[Democratic Party|Democrats]] with being "[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0BUE/is_3_136/ai_n18616442/ soft on Communism]." "More than one Congressman," reported ''The Christian Science Monitor'', "whenever the subject of leftist activity in the State Department is mentioned, pulled out a list of suspects that was invariably headed by Mr. Hiss."<ref>[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 115; [[#refZeligs67|Zeligs 1967]]: 341</ref> This congressional interest finally forced the [[Democratic Party|Democratic]] Truman administration to act: the State Department removed Hiss from access to secrets,<ref>[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 273</ref> while the Justice Department planned a [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury to look into Soviet espionage]].
 
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In January 1947, Byrnes [[#refCapshaw07|quietly eased Hiss out]] of the State Department. Byrnes would later refuse to testify as a character witness on behalf of Hiss.<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 68</ref>
 
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Hiss became president&mdash;[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798920,00.html at $20,000 a year] (the equivalent of [[#refBLS|more than $190,000]] per year today)&mdash;of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, serving also as a trustee of the closely-related<ref>Carroll Quigley, ''[http://www.scribd.com/doc/405200/Carroll-Quigley-The-Anglo-American-Establishment The Anglo-American Establishment]'' (G.S.G. & Associates, Incorporated, 1981) ISBN 0945001010, p. 160. Quigley was reportedly an [http://www.4president.org/speeches/billclinton1992acceptance.htm important influence] on President [[Bill Clinton]]. Scott McLemee, "The Quigley Cult," ''George Magazine'' Vol. 1, No. 10 (December 1996)</ref> [[Institute of Pacific Relations]],<ref>[[#refSISS53|SISS 1953]]: 8-10 (PDF 14-16)</ref> which would later be identified by the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] as "a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives."<ref>[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 (PDF 233)</ref>
 
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== House Committee on Un-American Activities (Redux) ==
 
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That March, in a bid to steal the [[GOP]]'s thunder,<ref>[[#refOlmstead02|Olmstead 2002]]: 114</ref> Truman enacted a "[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/executiveorders/index.php?pid=502 loyalty program]"&mdash;despite which, according to [[State Department]] security files, there were still [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page62.html 108 cases] there the following autumn.
 
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Even before the [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] convened, the [[FBI]] learned that the [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] administration, acutely aware that "an untimely public disclosure about Hiss could easily have torpedoed Truman's hopes for the 1948 Presidential election,"<ref>Charles Stuart Kennedy, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:2:./temp/~ammem_GoLZ:: Interview with Thomas L. Hughes], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, July 7, 1999</ref> conspired to subvert the grand jury process in order to cover up the [[USSR|Soviet]] penetration problem.<ref>One FBI memo reports that [[Harry S. Truman|Truman]] [[Department of Justice|Justice]] wanted the FBI to interview the [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]] suspects, with an eye to “presenting the evidence to a grand jury with the idea of letting them [http://www.answers.com/topic/no-bill no bill] the case. Further that in the event [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=T000175 Congressman Thomas] of the [[HUAC|Un-American Committee]] should ever [http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/highlights.html?action=view&intID=169 raise a question], it would be possible to answer by saying that the grand jury had considered the evidence and it had not deemed it sufficient to justify criminal action.” (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 96)</ref> The grand jury sat for nearly a year (July 22, 1947 to July 20, 1948), during which the Justice Department never called Whittaker Chambers to testify. Without his testimony, the grand jury had no corroboration of Bentley. As a result, it did not indict a single federal employee for espionage; instead, Truman Justice obtained indictments of the open leaders of the above-ground [[Communist Party]]&mdash;not for espionage, but for violations of the [[Smith Act]].<ref>[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 171, fn</ref>
 
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The [[Republican]] Congress responded by opening its own investigation of espionage suspects including [[Lauchlin Currie]], [[Harry Dexter White]] and Hiss. The [[Democrat]] Truman stonewalled, issuing a Presidential Directive that cut Congress off from all access to FBI and other information on loyalty or security cases:
 
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::"Any [http://www.nolo.com/definition.cfm/Term/BE45BC5C-A852-41E6-A9C1C267589E6C61/alpha/S/ subpena] or demand or request for information, reports, or files of the nature described, received from sources other than those persons in the executive branch of the Government... shall be [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1415&st=&st1=%2050. respectfully declined]..."<ref>Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, ''[http://ia700404.us.archive.org/13/items/annualreportfory1953unit/annualreportfory1953unit_bw.pdf Annual Report for the Year 1953]'' (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1954), pp. 186-187 (PDF pp. 194-195) Following Hiss's HUAC testimony on August 5, Truman would read to the press a statement amplifying this order:
 
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:"No information of any sort relating to the employee's loyalty, and no investigative data of any type, whether relating to loyalty or other aspects of the individual's record, shall be included in the material submitted [[#refTruman8.5.48|to a congressional committee]]."</ref>
 
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Cut off from investigative data, Congress interviewed witnesses itself. Following up on testimony given by [[Elizabeth Bentley|Bentley]], on August 3, [[Whittaker Chambers]] finally was called upon to testify&mdash;not before the grand jury, but before the [[House Committee on Un-American Activities]]. He repeated under oath what he had been telling [[State Department]] security officials and the [[FBI]] about the [[Ware group]] for a decade:
 
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{{cquote|I was a member of the Communist Party and a paid functionary of the party.... the apparatus to which I was attached…. was an underground organization of the United States Communist Party developed, to the best of my knowledge, by [[Harold Ware]]…. The head of the underground group at the time I knew it was [[Nathan Witt]]…. Later, [[John Abt]] became the leader. [[Lee Pressman]] was also a member of this group, as was Alger Hiss….The purpose of this group at that time was not primarily espionage. Its original purpose was the Communist infiltration of the American Government. But espionage was certainly one of its eventual objectives.<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 564 (PDF 74)</ref>}}
 
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[[Image:HissSig.png|thumb|300px|right|The name “Alger Hiss” in Cyrillic (Элджер Хисс) from Vassiliev's notes on the “[[Gorsky memo]].” ''Source: [[#refVas|Cold War International History Project]], Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars'']]When Chambers testified against Hiss, wrote Sudoplatov, "we considered this to be a setback for [[GRU]] intelligence activities in the United States."<ref>[[#refSudoplatov95|Sudoplatov 1995]]: 228</ref> Four months later, [[Anatoly Gorsky]], chief of Soviet intelligence in the U.S. during World War II, would author an internal [[KI|Soviet secret police]] memorandum, entitled "[[Gorsky memo|Failures in the USA (1938-48)]]," listing 43 Soviet sources and intelligence officers likely to have been identified to U.S. authorities. Included on the list, under the heading, "'Karl’s' group," was "Alger Hiss, former employee of the State Dept."<ref>[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]</ref> That same month, Piotr Fedotov and Konstantin Kukin, two other senior Soviet intelligence officials, [[#refTLS09|reported to the chairman of Soviet intelligence]] about “our former agents who were betrayed by Chambers (A. Hiss, [[Donald Hiss|D. Hiss]], [[Julian Wadleigh|Wadleigh]], [[Ward Pigman|Pigman]], [[Vincent Reno|Reno]]).”<ref>[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 37; Trans. 73; cf. [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 553, 555</ref>
 
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Two days after Chambers, Hiss testified, denying that he ever even knew Chambers, in a statement Secretary of State [[Dean Acheson]] helped write.<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 17</ref> Hiss "asked the committee to [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/ftinterface~content=a789433344~fulltext=713240930 disregard the evidence] and follow its emotions":
 
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{{cquote|it is ''inconceivable'' that there could have been on my part, during fifteen years or more in public office… any departure from the [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,859675,00.html highest rectitude] without its [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,811892,00.html being known]. It is ''inconceivable'' that the men with whom I was intimately associated during those fifteen years should not know my true character better than this accuser. It is ''inconceivable'' that… [etc.]<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1162 (PDF 672)</ref> (Emphases Bagley's)<ref>[[#refBagley07|Bagley 2007]]: 274</ref>}}
 
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The day of Hiss's testimony, President Truman finally reviewed Hiss's FBI file. Pronouncing Hiss “guilty as hell,” Truman told White House Special Counsel Samuel Rosenman, “We shouldn't just indict this son of a bitch. We should [[#refToledano97|hang him]].” Five minutes later, Truman blustered to a press conference that the Hiss case was just an election-year “[[#refTruman8.5.48|red]] [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,819396,00.html herring],”<ref>Alonzo L. Hamby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=oyx3AAAAMAAJ Man of the People: A Life of Harry S. Truman]'' (Oxford University Press, 1998) ISBN 0195124979, p. 453; See also [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/22.gif (Harry S. Truman) to the Attorney General, 16 December 1948], Harry S. Truman Library, Tom Clark Papers, "Attorney General&mdash;White House/President, 1948," box 83, reproduced (as Document 22) at [[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 119</ref> a characterization he would repeat [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,893525,00.html as late as 1956]. When Rosenman later asked why he had lied, Truman explained, “You don't understand. The Republicans aren't after Alger Hiss. They're after me. I had to take the [[#refToledano97|political view]].”<ref>Truman "wasn't fronting for Alger Hiss, per se, he thought they were attacking him through Hiss... Mr. Truman figured that that was a fight on him, so he supported Hiss whom he didn't really like; thought he was a terrible fellow." [[#refTrohan1970|Trohan 1970]]: 14</ref> (That year, Truman told Secretary of Defense James Forrestal there were "[[#refNovak03|too many unknowns]]" in the partially decoded Venona messages,<ref>[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 148</ref> saying, "Even if part of this is true, [[#refRusher04|it would open up the whole red panic again]].")<ref>The next year, Forrestal would be found dead from a fall from the tower of Bethesda Naval Hospital. Admiral M.D. Willcutts, [http://www.princeton.edu/~mudd/finding_aids/willcutts/report1.pdf Report on the Death of James V. Forrestal] (Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library, Princeton University), PDF p. 22; [http://jamesforrestal.ariwatch.com/WillcuttsReport.htm#Page0 HTML version].</ref>  In her [http://www.nps.gov/archive/elro/who-is-er/q-and-a/q24.htm newspaper column], [[Eleanor Roosevelt]] set the tone of respectable opinion, writing, "Smearing good people like [[Lauchlin Currie]], Alger Hiss and others is, I think, unforgiveable.... Anyone knowing either Mr. Currie or Mr. Hiss, who are the two people whom I happen to know fairly well, would not need any denial on their part to know they are not Communists. Their records prove it."<ref>[[#refER48|Eleanor Roosevelt 1948]]. Currie was an [[NKVD]] agent in the [[White House]], code-named "PAZh/Page." [[#refNSA05|Hanyok 2005]]: 118-119 (PDF 123-124), n. 185; [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 146; [[Gorsky memo]] ([[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77. Cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]])</ref> 
 
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When Hiss testified, most of those watching, including members of the press, appeared to be on Hiss's side, even giving him [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/3.html a round of applause] when he finished. So strong was Hiss's denial that the committee wanted to drop the investigation.<ref>[http://www.usembassy.ru/files/All%20the%20President's%20Men.pdf American Values through Film] (English Language Office, Public Affairs section, U.S. Embassy, Moscow), p. 81 (PDF p. 82)</ref> But one member, freshman Congressman [[Richard M. Nixon]] (R-Calif.) insisted that either [[#refLinder03|Chambers or Hiss was lying]] about whether they had known one another; he asked the committee to appoint him [http://www.departments.dsu.edu/LIBRARY/archive/unamerican.htm to head a subcommittee] to find out which one.<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 15-16</ref> The Truman administration fixed its sights, not on Hiss, but on Chambers, Truman aide George Elsie advising White House Counsel [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/whistlestop/study_collections/un/large/general_assembly/general_assembly3-1.jpg Clark Clifford] on August 16, "Justice should make every effort to ascertain if Whittaker Chambers is guilty of perjury."<ref>[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117</ref> No suggestion was made that Justice make any effort at all to ascertain if ''Hiss'' might be guilty of perjury.
 
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The Hiss forces launched a "frightful campaign of vilification"<ref>Hilton Kramer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=yPZ3AAAAMAAJ The Twilight of the Intellectuals: Culture and Politics in the Era of the Cold War]'' (I.R. Dee, 1999) ISBN 1566632226, p. 6</ref> against [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]], a whispering campaign of lies and innuendos. Many editorialists and columnists violently attacked him and defended Hiss.<ref>James Keogh, ''[http://ia700300.us.archive.org/0/items/thisisnixon017711mbp/thisisnixon017711mbp.pdf This Is Nixon]'' (New York: GP Putnam's Sons, 1956) ASIN B000MXH0XA, p. 40</ref>
 
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Nixon brought Hiss face-to-face with his accuser on August 25. "Hiss stoutly continued to deny the charge," reported ''Time'', but "it was clear to everyone" that he and Chambers "had known each other quite well in the mid-'30s." The magazine added that Hiss's "favorite phrase, as he fenced tediously with the committee, was: 'To the best of my recollection.' He used it and similar phrases [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,779940,00.html 198 times]." Chambers [[#refWhalen48|offered to take]] a lie-detector test; [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799060,00.html Hiss refused]&mdash;a refusal he kept up for the rest of his life.
 
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Trying to explain Chambers' charges, Hiss suggested that his accuser was crazy, asking, "is he a man of consistent reliability, truthfulness and honor?... Indeed, is he a man of sanity?"<ref>[[#refHUAC48|HUAC 1948]]: 1164 (PDF 674)</ref> He demanded that the committee ask his accuser if he had ever been treated for a mental illness. The committee obliged, and Chambers answered: "[http://www.thenation.com/article/case-alger-hiss I have not, period]." On the White House memo advising that Chambers be investigated for perjury was inserted a handwritten line: "Investigation of Chambers' [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/21.gif confinement in mental institution]."<ref>[[#refBW96|Benson, Warner 1996]]: 117.</ref> (Again, no suggestion was made that Hiss's mental health history might be subject to investigation.) The FBI had already checked into this, and [[J. Edgar Hoover|Hoover]] had reported to [[Attorney General]] [[Tom Clark]], "With regard to [[Whittaker Chambers]], there is nothing indicated in the files of the [[FBI|Bureau]], or in the files of the New York office that Chambers has been institutionalized."<ref>[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322</ref> In falling for the fiction that Chambers had been committed to an insane asylum, the Truman administration was "taken in by disinformation being spread by the American Communist party and Alger Hiss's partisans."<ref>[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 15</ref>
 
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In an act of supreme hubris, Hiss [[#refWard88|dared]] Chambers to repeat his charges outside of the immunity afforded in congressional hearings, so Hiss could sue him, taunting, "and I hope you will do it [[#refHUAC8-17-48|damned quickly]]." Just two days after their public testimony,<ref>Stephen D. Easton, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=BwtJgD-stVIC The Irving Younger Collection: Wisdom and Wit from the Master of Trial Advocacy]'' (American Bar Association, 2010) ISBN 1604426004, p. 533</ref> Chambers called Hiss's bluff on NBC's ''Meet the Press,'' saying, "[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/17982730/page/5/ Alger Hiss was a Communist] and may be now."
 
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Embarrassment mounted among Hiss partisans as weeks dragged by with no suit filed.<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 103</ref> The New York ''Daily News'' asked, "Well Alger, where's that suit?"<ref>[[#refChambers52|Chambers 1952]]: 281</ref> Even the ''Washington Post''&mdash;"the most implacable of the pro-Hiss<ref>"The ''Post''... seemed to redouble its pro-Hiss efforts as the goal of finding him legally guiltless was receding." Marvin N. Olasky, "[http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED285187.pdf Liberal Boosterism and Conservative Distancing: Newspaper Coverage of the Chambers-Hiss Affair, 1948-1950]," Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication (70th, San Antonio, TX, August 1-4, 1987), p. 13</ref> newspapers," [http://www.aim.org/aim-report/aim-report-media-wont-give-up-on-red-spy-alger-hiss-july-b/ according to Chambers]&mdash;began to have doubts,<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 162</ref> writing:
 
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{{cquote|As yet, no formal action to initiate a suit for slander has publicly been taken by Mr. Hiss ... Mr. Hiss himself has created a situation in which he is obliged to [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,888461,00.html put up or shut up] ... Mr. Hiss has left himself no alternative. And each day of delay in making it known that he will avail himself of the opportunity Mr. Chambers has accorded him does incalculable damage to his reputation.}}
 
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Finally, [[#refChronology|after a month]], Hiss filed his long-threatened slander suit against Chambers.
 
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==Hiss's suit against Chambers==
 
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===The Baltimore Documents===
 
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In a pre-trial "discovery" deposition for the suit, Hiss's attorney William L. Marbury asked Chambers if he had "any correspondence, either typewritten or in handwriting" from Hiss&mdash;"one of the most disastrous questions ever asked at a deposition."<ref>[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 98</ref> Marbury "never expected ([[#refLindPump|nor would he have asked]] for, had he known) the response that he received." Chambers retrieved [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/envelope.jpg the packet] he had given his wife's nephew in 1938, which had been hidden [[#refTime12.20.48|in a dumbwaiter shaft]]. Three days later, Chambers turned over to Hiss's attorneys 65 pages of typewritten documents and [http://images.google.com/images?hl=en&source=hp&q=source%3Alife%20%22pumpkin%20papers%22&um=1&ie=UTF-8&sa=N&tab=wi handwritten memoranda], some so sensitive that for security reasons they could [[#refHissAppellate|not safely be made public]], though already a decade old. Chambers' attorney introduced the documents:
 
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{{cquote|Let's identify these papers by reading the first and last words of each one into the record... 'Tokyo... February 12, KENNEDY.' 'Paris... February 15, 1938... Secretary of State...  Signed BULLITT.' 'Vienna... February 13, 1938... Secretary of State... Signed WILEY.' 'Rome... March 29... The Embassy learns... Signed PHILLIPS.' 'Warsaw... March 29... I learn following in strictest confidence... Signed BIDDLE.'<ref>[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 214-215</ref>}}
 
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Hiss conceded that the typed pages appeared to be copies of authentic State Department documents, and admitted that all but one of the handwritten memos appeared to be in his handwriting.<ref>FBI "By Special Messenger": SAC, Washington Field to Hoover, December 1, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1) The FBI laboratory determined that the remaining [http://www.life.com/image/72404528 handwritten memorandum] supplied by Chambers was [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/FBI_Memorandum_identifying_Harry_Dexter_White_as_agent_Jurist in the handwriting] of [[Harry Dexter White]], just as [http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=888&dat=19491129&id=CocNAAAAIBAJ&sjid=KE4DAAAAIBAJ&pg=3777,2653357 Chambers testified].</ref> Among the documents confirmed by Hiss's own documents experts to be in his handwriting (contradicting [[#refNYRB2|his denial]]) was a [http://www.documentstalk.com/wp/wp-content/uploads/bdocs_hiss_note_to_martin.jpg summary of a telegram]<ref>This image is hosted on DocumentsTalk.com, a Web site "underwritten, [http://www.washingtondecoded.com/site/2009/06/in-denial-round-11.html perhaps entirely], by THE NATION INSTITUTE," which is [[#refDTN:OSI|in turn funded]] by [[George Soros]].</ref> that Chambers had [[#refNYRB|quoted almost verbatim]] in an article he gave Herbert Solow in 1938.
 
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Assistant U.S. Attorney Thomas J. Donegan told the FBI that Assistant Attorney General Alexander M. Campbell, head of the Criminal Division at Truman Justice, “now wants to institute perjury charges against Chambers” for not revealing the documents before this. FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover's handwritten addendum comments, “I wonder why they don't move against Hiss also.”<ref>FBI memorandum: Ladd to Hoover, November 23, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 1)</ref> The Truman administration's determination to indict Chambers rather than Hiss was unusual, as two leading scholars of the case note:
 
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{{cquote|Usually … when a witness gives false testimony and then later comes forward and provides a truthful account, no perjury charge is brought. To charge perjury … in such a case would be a disincentive for a witness to provide a subsequent truthful account…. [A] perjury count is rarely brought if a witness corrects false testimony in a timely fashion…. Chambers corrected his false sworn testimony within two months of his grand jury testimony ... and his false testimony had not produced any miscarriage of justice.<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 108</ref>}}
 
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===The Pumpkin Papers===
 
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[[Image:09905 2004 001 a.jpg|thumb|300px|right|One of the 'pumpkin papers,' marked 'STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL FOR THE SECRETARY.' Bullitt relates to Hull report of Litvinov's private comments on Soviet intentions regarding war with Japan, 1938. ''Image courtesy [http://www.digitalvaults.org/#/detail/1625/?record=1625 National Archives and Records Administration]'']]Hoping that they would lead to an indictment of Chambers,<ref>"Hiss had his attorney William Marbury surrender the papers to the U.S. Department of Justice.... Hiss hoped that Justice would indict Chambers." David Chambers, [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/pumpkinpapers.html Pumpkin Papers], whittakerchambers.org</ref> Hiss turned over the documents to the [[Harry Truman|Truman]] [[Justice Department]], which immediately impounded and sequestered them. [[HUAC]] requested copies, but Truman stonewalled. On December 1, the United Press reported, "the Justice Department is about ready to drop its investigation of the celebrated Alger Hiss-Whittaker Chambers controversy."<ref>Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress, [http://books.google.com/books?id=QhcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage within the United States Government: Hearings Pursuant to Public Law 601 (Section 121, Subsection Q (2))], December 31, 1948 (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1949), p. 4. Cf. [[#refTL50|Toledano Lasky]]: 216</ref> The Truman administration may have thought it was done with Hiss, but it wasn't quite finished with Chambers. The next day, an FBI memo reiterated that Justice wanted "an immediate investigation by the Bureau to determine whether Chambers committed perjury."<ref>[[#refEvans07|Evans 2007]]: 322</ref> Hoover penned, "I can't understand why such effort is being made to indict Chambers to the exclusion of Hiss."<ref>FBI memorandum: Fletcher to Ladd, December 2, 1948 (FBI file: Hiss-Chambers, Vol. 2)</ref>
 
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Meanwhile, rebuffed in his attempts to see the documents, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] asked Chambers on December 1 whether he had any other such material in his possession. The answer was yes. The next day, in response to a subpoena, Chambers led HUAC chief investigator Robert Stripling on his Maryland farm to a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkin.jpg pumpkin he had hollowed out] the night before and in which he had secreted [[#refTime75|five rolls]] (two developed strips and three undeveloped rolls, one of which later proved to have been [[#refHissAppellate|light struck]]) of [[#refTime75|35 millimeter film]]. The film included fifty-eight frames, mostly photos of State and Navy Department documents, dated January 5 through April 1, 1938 (the so-called "Pumpkin Papers").<ref>National Archives and Records Administration, [http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/060.html General Records of the Department of Justice (Record Group 60) 1790-1989, 1991]: 60.3.5 Miscellaneous records: Microfilm copy of evidence ("Pumpkin Papers") used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51 (5 rolls). Microfilm Publications: M1491. Photographs (263 images: Documents reproduced from the "Pumpkin Papers," and used in U.S. v. Alger Hiss, 1948-51)</ref> The State Department documents dealt with a [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/ppboyce.jpg wide] [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pphissnote.jpg variety] of [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pplockhart.jpg subjects], including [[#refLindPump|U.S. intentions with respect to the Soviet Union]], the Spanish Civil War, and Germany's takeover of Austria. Some of the documents on the film were [[#refNYRB|initialed by Hiss and came from his office]]. Some were of a [http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/7.html highly sensitive, classified nature]. Some State Department cables bearing Hiss's handwritten initials had direct bearing on matters of major Soviet interest, including Chinese Communist strategy during the war with Japan and Chinese-Soviet relations.<ref>[[#refHK06|Haynes, Klehr 2006]]: 116</ref>
 
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According to Chambers, some of the microfilm was made by a contact he knew only as "Felix," who would photograph documents with a Leica purchased by the Communist underground. For such work, said Chambers, Felix had been trained in Moscow, where he traveled on a forged U.S. passport. In 1949 Chambers would lead FBI investigators to the Baltimore block on which he thought Felix had lived in the 1930s. The Bureau discovered that a Felix Inslerman had lived on the block, later moving to Schenectady, N.Y., where he worked on a secret guided-missile project, in 1946 becoming one of the few civilians to attend the atomic tests at Bikini.
 
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Both before the grand jury and in the second Hiss trial, Inslerman would refuse to answer questions on grounds of potential self-incrimination. But in Inslerman's Schenectady home, the FBI found a Leica whose imperfections matched the scratch marks on Chambers' famed pumpkin film. In 1954, Inslerman would corroborate Chambers' story [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,819479,00.html under oath]. He would later turn up on the "[[Gorsky memo]]" (code-named 107th), as would another photographer identified by Chambers, "David Carpenter" (David Zimmerman),<ref>[[#refHaynes08|Vassiliev Concordance]]: 28</ref> code-named 103rd.<ref>[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77</ref> Recently released files reveal that the third photographer identified by Chambers,<ref>[[#refBerle|Berle memo]]</ref> ex-[[GRU]] agent<ref>[[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 166</ref> William Edward Crane [[#refNYRB|admitted to the FBI]] that he photographed documents from the Treasury and State Department for Chambers in Baltimore.<ref>[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig, 39; Trans. 77 (cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]); [[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30</ref>
 
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==Grand jury==
 
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The Truman administration demanded that HUAC turn over the film, but Nixon refused. He allowed Justice Department officials to view the film, and gave them copies, but would not surrender the film until Justice supplied HUAC with copies of the sequestered Baltimore documents. With no other option, Truman Justice finally called Chambers to testify before a hastily-reconvened [[#refBentleyGJ|grand jury]] on December 6&mdash;more than 16 months after it had originally convened. That day, Hiss's attorney Edward McLean gave the defense's documents examiner, J. Howard Haring, a batch of old Hiss family letters that Hiss had given him the previous September, two months before Chambers produced the documents. Immediately identifying the typeface as that of a [http://www.whittakerchambers.org/images/woodstocktypewriterno5_300dpi250x200pxl.png Woodstock typewriter], Haring reported that one of Mrs. Hiss's 1933 letters "was typed on the same machine as the Chambers documents." McLean informed the Hisses of this finding the same day. The next day, according to another of Hiss's lawyers, John F. Davis: "Alger ... asked [me to] check on an old machine which he remembers he gave to Pat, the son of Claudia Catlett...." Yet Hiss swore under oath that he remembered neither the make nor disposition [[#refNYRB|of the typewriter]]. While the FBI was off on a wild-goose chase searching used-typewriter stores, on the basis of false information furnished by Hiss,<ref>John J. Danahy, "The Alger Hiss Case," Society of Former Special Agents of the FBI, 2nd Ed. (Turner Publishing Company, 1998) ISBN 1563114739, p. 74</ref> his brother Donald tracked down the Catletts and retrieved the typewriter.
 
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Hiss would later change his story, testifying that he gave the typewriter to the Catletts in 1937, before the date of the documents produced by Chambers. Pat Catlett, however, would tell defense lawyers that Hiss gave the Catletts the typewriter in the [[#refHissAppellate|spring of 1938]], just after the dates of the documents.
 
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On December 13, the FBI independently located specimens of Priscilla Hiss's typing from the 1930s. The FBI laboratory concluded, like Haring, that all the papers in question had been typed on the same typewriter, [[#refNYRB|a Woodstock]].
 
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Another defense expert, Harry E. Cassidy, concluded that Priscilla Hiss not only typed the Chambers documents, but wrote all the handwritten corrections on the typed documents. Asked by Hiss's attorneys whether it was more likely that Hiss or Chambers had written these corrections, Haring responded: "I am inclined to the opinion that the AH [Alger Hiss] corrections more closely resemble the QUESTIONED writing, than do the writings of WC [Whittaker Chambers]." A third defense expert, Edwin Fearon, agreed, reporting to the Hiss lawyers: "The corrections appearing in Exhibits 5-47 inclusive (exception—Exhibit 10) bear a closer resemblence [sic] to the handwritten corrections made by AH than to those made by WC." Fearon added that all but one of the documents were "[[#refNYRB2|typed on Woodstock typewriter no.N230099]]"&mdash;the Hiss's machine.
 
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On December 15, Alger Hiss proposed to the grand jury a theory that someone (perhaps Chambers)<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 270</ref> had sneaked into the State Department and stolen the documents from his desk<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 178, 253, 257, 299, 397</ref> then, having somehow obtained access to Hiss's typewriter,<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 298, 300</ref> typed some of the documents on it<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 281, 298</ref> and microfilmed others, and then sneaked back into the State Department and replaced the originals,<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 254</ref> all in an elaborate plot to frame Hiss<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299</ref> a decade later.<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: p. 281</ref> Even Hiss admitted that his theory was "fantastic,"<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 299</ref> stating, "Until the day I die, I shall wonder how Whittaker Chambers got into my house to use my typewriter," a statement provoking outright laughter among jurors.<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 300</ref>
 
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That day, [[#refChronology|Hiss testified]] that he never gave any documents to Whittaker Chambers, and that he had no contact with Chambers after January 1, 1937. The same day, the grand jury indicted Hiss on [[#refBentleyGJ|two counts of perjury]], charging that he [[#refLinder03|lied under oath]] in both these statements. Because the five-year statute of limitations [[#refLinder03|had expired]], the grand jury could not consider espionage charges.
 
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Just as Chambers had gained the upper hand by voluntarily waiving immunity from slander, the influential<ref>Lippmann has been called “the most influential journalist in American history.” Jacqueline Foertsch, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mao9DJoAlhAC American Culture in the 1940s]'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2008) ISBN 0748624139, p. 56</ref> columnist Walter Lippmann, a [[Socialist]]<ref>"Joined the Harvard Socialist Club and later became president... Elected to Executive Committee, [http://books.google.com/books?id=2v9aAAAAMAAJ Intercollegiate Socialist Society]... Joined [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9034000C.rtf the Socialist Party], New York County, and the Socialist Press Club of New York City." In the midst of the [[Nazi-Soviet Pact]], "WJL" (Walter J. Lippmann) wrote to "ECC" (Edward C. Carter, head of the [[Attorney General's list|Communist-front]] "[[American Russian Institute]]" and [[Institute of Pacific Relations]]&mdash;"a vehicle used by the Communists to orientate American far eastern policies toward Communist objectives," according to the [[Senate Judiciary Committee]] {[[#refIPR52|S. Rept. 2050]]: 225 [PDF 233]}), urging "cooperation with the European revolutionaries and the Soviet Union in their attempt to build a socialist Europe as a nucleus for a world socialist order, with the obvious corollary of the establishment of socialism in this country." Walter Lippmann to Edward C. Carter, June 10, 1940, p. 5 (PDF p. 100), FBI file: [http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/IPR54.11.pdf  Institute of Pacific Relations, Section 54, Part 11],  pp. 96-101.</ref> and [[#refVenona1289|Soviet intelligence source]],<ref>According to Eric Alterman, a [http://www.thenation.com/directory/bios/eric_alterman columnist] and [http://www.thenation.com/blogs/altercation blogger] for ''The Nation'', Lippmann "offered much more [http://www.prospect.org/cs/articles?article=stone_cold_untruths useful information to the Soviets] than [[#refHKV5.09|Stone]] ever did."</ref> (whose secretary, [[Mary Price]], was a [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1943/8jun_dir_courier.pdf Soviet agent])<ref>[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/29apr_recruits.pdf 588 New York to Moscow, 29 April 1944]; cf. [http://ia700308.us.archive.org/16/items/instituteofpacif02unit/instituteofpacif02unit_bw.pdf Institute of Pacific Relations Hearings, Part 2], Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, United States Senate, 82d Cong., 1st Sess. (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1951), p. 406 (PDF p. 62); [[#refRomerstein01|Romerstein, Breindel 2001]]: 439 and [[#refHK99|Haynes, Klehr 1999]]: 99</ref> suggested that Hiss turn the tables by waiving the statute of limitations on espionage. Hiss never took him up on that suggestion.<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 384</ref>
 
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==The Trials==
 
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On May 31, 1949, Alger [[#refTruChron|Hiss went on trial]] for perjury in New York City. At trial, Hiss provided an all-star cast of character witnesses, including such notables as [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=S000890 Adlai Stevenson], Justice [[Felix Frankfurter]], and former Democratic presidential candidate [http://bioguide.congress.gov/scripts/biodisplay.pl?index=D000121 John W. Davis]. However, both Under Secretary Welles and Sayre testified that delivering the classified documents to a foreign power would enable them to break America's most secret codes.<ref>Mr. Welles. All of these messages, Mr. Stripling, originally were sent in code and undoubtedly those marked "strictly confidential" or "strictly confidential, for the Secretary," would presumably be sent in one of the most secret codes then in our possession. Mr. Stripling. Would the possession of the document as written, along with the original document as it appeared in code, furnish an individual with the necessary information to break the code? Mr. Welles. In my judgment, decidedly yes. ([[#refHUAC48.2|HUAC 1948, Part 2]]: 1388 [PDF 16]) SAYRE: [T]hey didn't have these highly confidential codes; and for these telegrams to get out at the time they did meant that other governments could crack our codes. [[#refHUAC48-2R|HUAC 1948, 2nd Rept.]], p. 6; cf. C.P. Trussel, "[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11F83D5B157A93CAA91789D95F4C8485F9&scp=1&sq=Spy%20Papers%20Show%20U.S.%20Codes%20Were%20Broken,%20Official%20Says&st=cse Spy Papers Show U.S. Codes Were Broken, Official Says]," ''The New York Times'', December 8, 1948; [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 221-223; [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 232</ref>
 
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At Hiss’ first perjury trial, Hornbeck testified that an unnamed friend had warned him that Hiss was a Communist fellow-traveler, but he disregarded the warning.<ref>[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 235</ref> At the second trial, Hornbeck testified that on at least two occasions he was warned that Hiss was a Communist, and named Bullitt as his source.<ref>[[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 258-259</ref> [[John Foster Dulles]], who had recommended Hiss for the Carnegie Endowment, likewise testified at that trial that various people had warned him that [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,806501-1,00.html Hiss was a Communist].<ref>Among those who had warned Dulles of Hiss's Communist record were Alfred Kohlberg, a former member of the [[Institute of Pacific Relations]] (where Hiss was a trustee) and attorney Larry S. Davidow. [[#refTL50|de Toledano, Lasky 1950]]: 114</ref>
 
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The prosecution called [[Hede Massing]], but at the first trial Judge Samuel H. Kaufman ruled that her testimony was irrelevant. At the second trial, Judge Henry W. Goddard allowed her to testify about [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,855041,00.html Hiss's 1935 attempt] to get [[Noel Field]] to transfer from her [[OGPU]] group to Hiss's [[GRU]] group. To avoid testifying, Field [[#refTanenhaus93|fled to the East bloc]].
 
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Hiss’ attorney conceded that the stolen documents had been copied on Hiss's Woodstock, telling the jury the question was not “what typewriter was used, but who the typist was.”<ref>Steven M. Chermak, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FPRslbPnMjwC Crimes and Trials of the Century: From the Black Sox Scandal to the Attica Prison Riots]'' (Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007) ISBN 0313341109, p. 184</ref>
 
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The defense reverted to Hiss's original "insanity defense" (to wit, that ''Chambers'' was insane), calling a psychiatrist, Dr. Carl Binger, who attempted to psychoanalyze Chambers without interviewing him, testifying that “Mr. Chambers is suffering from a condition known as a psychopathic personality.”<ref>Edward W. Knappman, ed., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mLP8D2Od2SkC Great American Trials: 201 Compelling Courtroom Dramas]'' (Detroit: Visible Ink Press, 1994) ISBN 1578591996, p. 444. Ironically, the standard work on psychopathic personality, the landmark ''[http://www.cassiopaea.org/cass/sanity_1.PdF The Mask of Sanity: An Attempt to Clarify Some Issues About the So-Called Psychopathic Personality]'' (St. Louis, Mo.: CV Mosby Co., 1941) by Hervey Cleckley (coauthor of ''The Three Faces of Eve''), identifies  the psychopathic personality as possessing superficial charm and good intelligence, absence of delusions and other signs of irrational thinking, absence of nervousness or psychoneurotic manifestations, lack of remorse and shame, etc. (See pp. 338-339 [PDF 353-354])&mdash;characteristics far more descriptive of Hiss than Chambers. "I never liked him. I knew him..." said Ambassador James Cowles Hart Bonbright. "There was something about Alger that didn't ring true. He was young and attractive, he wrote well, but he just didn't seem trustworthy." Peter Jessup, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:6:./temp/~ammem_YVYl:: Interview with James Cowles Hart Bonbright], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, February 26, 1986</ref> So thoroughly did his testimony collapse under scrutiny that the prosecutor’s [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisstrialtranscripts.html cross examination] of Binger has been used as a model<ref>[[#refBerresford92|Berresford 1992]]: 105, n. 83</ref> to teach generations of law students.<ref>Gilbert Geis and Leigh B. Bienen, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xdbQMywnrdwC Crimes of the Century: From Leopold and Loeb to O.J. Simpson]'' (Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1998) ISBN 1555533604, p. 151</ref>
 
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Among the symptoms of psychopathic personality, Binger mentioned “abnormal sexuality.” An important part of the Hiss defense strategy was to exploit Chambers’s sexual preference in order to portray him as mentally ill and therefore not a credible witness: [http://www.nyu.edu/library/bobst/research/tam/hiss_timothy_naftali.pdf Hiss himself dictated for the record] a rumor that Chambers had been treated in 1938 “for gonorrhea, frigidity, shock, and persecution complex.”<ref>Timothy Naftali, “Alger Hiss and the Chambers’ Secrets,” Alger Hiss and History, Inaugural Conference, April 5, 2007 (New York University, Center for the United States and the Cold War), p. 6</ref> Writing in [http://www.ox.ac.uk/ Oxford University]'s ''[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/ Oxonian Review]'', professed "liberal" Daniel Hemel sums up:
 
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{{cquote|[W]hat is striking about the Hiss trial is not that the prosecution engaged in shameless red-baiting (it did not), but that Hiss’s defense team engaged in shameless gay-baiting. Unable to discredit Chambers based on the facts of the case, Hiss’s lawyers (with the defendant’s encouragement) sought to smear Chambers based on the fact that he was bisexual. Fortunately, the jurors in the Hiss case were not as horrifyingly homophobic as Hiss and his attorneys. In retrospect, if either side of the trial engaged in egregious behaviour, it was the defense&mdash;[http://www.oxonianreview.org/wp/who-killed-alger-hiss/ not the prosecution].}}
 
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Hiss's friend and former colleague, Charles Wyzanski, Senior District Judge of the U.S. District Court in Boston, testified in both trials in defense of Hiss. Wyzanski, who "''initially'' had supposed [Hiss] innocent," (Italics in original) later concluded that "[http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/jah/87.1/letters.html Hiss was guilty]," as did Hiss's own attorney, William L. Marbury.
 
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== Conviction ==
 
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[[Image:Hiss_in_cuffs.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Convicted, a handcuffed Hiss leaves courtroom for prison. ''Source:'' [http://images.google.com/hosted/life/f?imgurl=5e12f4a1722b109b Life ''magazine]'']]On [[#refTruChron|June 8, 1949]], the jurors voted eight to four for conviction,<ref>James Bell, "[http://books.google.com/books?id=6VEEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA37#v=onepage&q&f=false Eight Out of 12 Vote Hiss Guilty]," ''Life'', July 8, 1949, p. 37</ref> resulting in a hung jury in Hiss's first trial. The second trial began on [[#refTruChron|November 17, 1949]]. On [[#refBentleyGJ|January 21, 1950]], the jury took [http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,856471,00.html less than 24 hours] to return a [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-guilty.html unanimous verdict]: [[#refHissAppellate|Guilty on both counts]]. In his pre-sentencing statement, Hiss said, "I am confident that in the future the full facts showing how Whittaker Chambers was able to carry out [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,822033,00.html forgery by typewriter] will be developed." (Concerning the four handwritten documents Hiss had admitted were in his own handwriting, he was silent.) A [[KGB]] memo notes that [[GRU]] agent “Leonard”, identified as “chief of one of the main divisions in the [[State Department]] and a member of 'Karl's' ([[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]]')<ref>[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]</ref> group,” was convicted “at the beginning of 1950.”<ref>[[#refSpies09|Haynes, Klehr, Vassiliev 2009]]: 30</ref> The only senior American diplomat convicted of an espionage-related crime in 1950 [[#refTLS09|was Alger Hiss]], whom Gorsky had [[Gorsky memo|identified as "Leonard"]] in 1948.<ref>[[#refVasBlack|Vassiliev Black Notebook]]: Orig. 39; Trans. 77; cf. [[#refBLH05|Bachman, Leich, Haynes 2005]]; [[#refLowCher|Lowenthal, Chervonnaya 2005]]</ref>
 
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Hiss was sentenced to two concurrent five-year terms in [http://www.orwelltoday.com/hisscuffs2.jpg federal prison]. Secretary of State Dean Acheson provoked outrage by commenting, "Whatever the outcome of any appeal which Mr. Hiss or his lawyer may take, I do not intend to turn my back on Alger Hiss."<ref>While Acheson defended this statement in public, privately he admitted "it was not one of the smartest things that I ever did in my life." Horace G. Torbert, [http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?mfdip:16:./temp/~ammem_JLez:: Interview with Jack K. McFall], Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, May 9, 1988</ref> Eleanor Roosevelt added to the furor with her comment, "It seems rather horrible to condemn someone on the word of someone else who admits to guilt." ''Time'' magazine commented that she "obviously had not been paying much attention," being "unaware of, or [http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811795,00.html determined to ignore], the [[corroborating evidence]] introduced by the Government."
 
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By that June, the U.S. Army was persuaded that [[#refMoyComA|Ales was Hiss]]. General of the Army Omar Bradley, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, informed President Truman that Venona had "positively identified" Hiss and [[Harry Dexter White]] as Soviet agents.<ref>[[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 149</ref> According to Bradley, Truman said, "That G&mdash;D&mdash; stuff. Every time it bumps into us it gets bigger and bigger. It's likely to [[#refRusher04|take us down]]."
 
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Hiss appealed, but in December 1950 his [[#refMHSL|conviction was affirmed]] by the [[#refHissAppellate|U.S. Court of Appeals]]. The [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]] twice denied him ''certiorari'',<ref>Asked if they had “one shred” of evidence to back their thesis in seeking a new trial, the Hiss lawyers answered, “No, your Honor.” Ralph de Toledano, "[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/22_04/toledano.pdf Towards a Higher Imperative]," ''Modern Age'', Fall 1978, p. 412 (PDF p. 1)</ref> and later denied his petition for a writ of error ''coram nobis'',<ref>The Supreme Court rejected Hiss's appeal three times, the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/hiss--guilty-as-charged-8090 last time in 1983].</ref> orchestrated by<ref>Eric Breindel, "The Faithful Traitor," ''National Review'', February 10, 1997</ref> long-time Communist Party member<ref>Rabinowitz claimed to have joined the Party in 1942, adding "There was no formal act marking the end of the relationship.... though I continued to meet with party members to discuss both political and legal matters for many years thereafter." (Victor Rabinowitz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=iMaVigHoraAC Unrepentant Leftist: A Lawyer's Memoir]'' [Champaign, Ill.: University of Illinois Press, 1996] ISBN 025202253X, pp. 73, 87). Rabinowitz' law partner (representing Cuba's Communist Castro regime) was [http://www.thepostemail.com/2009/09/26/declassified-fbi-report-exposes-communist-seedbed-for-obama-associates/ Leonard Boudin], [http://lawvibe.com/leftist-lawyer-victor-rabinowitz-passes-away-at-96/ father of convicted Weather Underground terrorist Kathy Boudin], whose son was [http://www.nytimes.com/2002/12/09/us/from-a-radical-background-a-rhodes-scholar-emerges.html?pagewanted=all adopted and raised] by self-proclaimed "communist" (Ron Chepesiuk, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=hqbM4eyLyx8C Sixties Radicals, Then and Now: Candid Conversations with Those Who Shaped the Era]'' [McFarland, 1995] ISBN 0899507786, p. 102) [[William Ayers]], political [http://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/04/us/politics/04ayers.html?pagewanted=all booster of Barack Obama].</ref> Victor Rabinowitz.
 
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==Prison==
 
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Hiss served 44 months of his five-year sentence in Lewisburg Federal Prison. There, his [[#refWard88|best friends]] were the gangsters, whom he later compared to prisoners of war in terms of solidarity, hierarchy and discipline.<ref>[[#refHiss89|Hiss 1989]]: 168</ref> Hiss even provided legal advice to his [[#refLH88|fellow inmate]], the notorious Mafia boss [http://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm Frank Costello].<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 90</ref> Hiss called the gangsters “the [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/brower.html most stable group] in any prison” and “[http://ariannaonline.huffingtonpost.com/columns/printer_friendly.php?id=684 the healthiest inmates] of the prison” because they “had absolutely no sense of guilt.”<ref>Hiss to C. Vann Woodward, May 2, 1959, quoted in [[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 581; [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 87-88</ref> Hiss admitted that he, too, never felt guilt about anything he had ever done<ref>[[#refRemnick86|Remnick 1986]]</ref> &mdash;as one Hiss biographer comments, “an [[#refCapshaw07|incredible statement]] from anyone.”
 
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== Later Life ==
 
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Hiss was released in 1954. Disbarred, he became a salesman. Five years later, Alger and Priscilla Hiss separated.<ref>[[#refRicher04|Richer 2004]]: 309 (PDF 3)</ref> In the late '60s, Hiss met Mrs. Isabel Dowden Johnson, a former [http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~sch00103 editor at ''The New York Times'' and ex-wife] of [http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0170660/bio the Communist]<ref>Cole, who titled his 1981 memoir ''Hollywood Red'', "remained a hardcore Communist" until his death in 1985. Ronald Radosh and Allis Radosh, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=J_BkAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 Red Star Over Hollywood]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2005) ISBN 1893554961, p. 29; Cf. Kenneth Lloyd Billingsley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YWtZAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 Hollywood Party: How Communism Seduced the American Film Industry in the 1930s and 1940s]'' (Rocklin, Calif: Prima Publishing, 1998) ISBN 0761513760, pp. 266-267</ref> screen writer Lester Cole, a member of the "Hollywood Ten." Priscilla reportedly had a breakdown, in which she said she was “tired of all the [[#refCapshaw07|lies and cover-ups]],” and complained that "Alger was willing to [http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=28202 sacrifice us all] on the altar of his vindication." Following Priscilla's death in 1984, [http://www.nytimes.com/2000/05/07/nyregion/isabel-j-hiss-91-widow-of-alger-hiss.html Alger and Isabel married].
 
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As a result of his role in the Hiss case, [[Richard Nixon|Nixon]] had been elected to the [[Senate]] in 1950; two years later [[GOP]] Presidential Candidate [[Dwight Eisenhower]] made him his running mate. Unable to forgive Nixon for his part in nailing Hiss,<ref>Klaus P. Fischer, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sCXig_6abwkC America in White, Black, and Gray: The Stormy 1960s]'' (Continuum International Publishing Group, 2006) ISBN 0826418163, p. 240</ref> the establishment launched an [http://stonezone.com/article.php?id=131 unprecedented liberal media attack] against him. That year, [[Whittaker Chambers|Chambers]] wrote to Nixon:
 
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{{cquote|[The] Attack on you shows how deeply the enemy fears you as he always fears and seeks to destroy a combination of honesty and fighting courage. Be proud to be attacked for the attackers are the enemies of all of us. To few recent public figures does this nation owe so much as to you. God help us [http://washingtontimes.com/news/2009/jun/15/nixon-library-invites-john-dean/ if we ever forget it].}}
 
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Nixon was elected [[President]] in 1968, and re-elected in a [http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/showelection.php?year=1972 landslide]<ref>''New York Times'' film critic Pauline Kael reportedly said, "I don't know how Richard Nixon could have won. [http://www.boston.com/news/nation/articles/2008/06/30/changing_the_polarized_electoral_landscape/ I don't know anybody who voted for him]." This quote has become an embarrassment to liberals, who try to [http://www.cbsnews.com/sections/couricandco/main500803.shtml?keyword=Pauline+Kael deny she said it], but even the ''New York Times'' admits Kael told the [http://www.campusreportonline.net/main/articles.php?id=733 Modern Language Association], "[http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=F50A11FF3E59107A93CAAB1789D95F468785F9 I only know one person who voted for Nixon]" while, according to [http://search.bloomberg.com/search?q=craig+seligman&site=wnews&client=wnews&proxystylesheet=wnews&output=xml_no_dtd&ie=UTF-8&oe=UTF-8&filter=p&getfields=wnnis&sort=date%3AD%3AS%3Ad1&submit.x=0&submit.y=0&submit=submit Bloomberg News critic] Craig Seligman, "Kael told me... [http://begonias.typepad.com/srubio/2004/12/kaelnixon_updat.html she didn't even know anyone who had voted for Nixon]."</ref> in 1972. But the left "loathed Nixon for his role in the Hiss case" (and [http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0122/p09s01-coop.html in Vietnam]).<ref>George McKenna, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=_wwA0pdMdg4C The Puritan Origins of American Patriotism]'' (Yale University Press, 2007) ISBN 030010099X, p. 310</ref> By 1974, the [[Watergate]] scandal<ref>Victor Lasky, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=KagnAAAACAAJ It Didn't Start with Watergate]'' (Dell Pub. Co., 1978) ISBN 0440144000</ref> forced [[Richard M. Nixon|President Nixon]] to resign,<ref>Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=EL8qgEmBVRMC Silent Coup: The Removal of a President]'' (St. Martin's Paperbacks, 1992) ISBN 0312927630</ref> giving "some credence to a wide spectrum of [http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm/4 conspiracy theories]<ref>[[#refWeinstein78|Weinstein 1978]]: 575</ref> involving fake typewriters, phony microfilm, and various collusions among the FBI, Nixon, HUAC, the CIA, the radical right, and the KGB." In 1975, the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court granted Hiss's petition for readmittance to the State Bar of Massachusetts, although the court's ruling stated "nothing we have said here should be construed as detracting one iota from the fact that in considering Hiss's petition we consider him to be [http://masscases.com/cases/sjc/368/368mass447.html guilty as charged]."
 
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With the rise of radical left-wing politics and the so-called [[New Left]] in the '60s, Hiss became a sought-out speaker [http://dlib.nyu.edu/findingaids/html/tamwag/hiss.html on college campuses].<ref>[[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 275, n. 45</ref> In 1981, Bard College established an [http://dlib.nyu.edu/eadapp/transform?source=tamwag/haury.xml&style=tamwag/tamwag.xsl&part=body Alger Hiss Distinguished Professorship] in Social Studies, formerly held by "[http://www.joelkovel.com/newreadings.html#ecosocialism1 eco-socialist]"<ref>Kovel defines his ideology as Marxian communism&mdash;the "realization" of what he calls "'first-epoch' socialism" (that is, "neither more nor less than the [http://www.joelkovel.com/messages.html#socialism original announcement of the ''Communist Manifesto'']")&mdash;not in pursuit of "unfettered productivity" ''à la'' Marx, but to further fetter productivity in the interest of environmentalism.</ref> Joel Kovel, who declared that America's obsession with anti-Communism during the Cold War led the U.S. to become “the [http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewarticle.cfm/in-denial-by-john-earl-haynes-and-harvey-klehr-9668 enemy of humanity].” By the time Nixon died in 1994, ''Foreign Policy'' magazine could assign the task of reviewing his posthumous book, ''Beyond Peace'', to his embittered foe, [[George McGovern]], who took the opportunity to avenge his humiliating [http://uselectionatlas.org/RESULTS/national.php?year=1972&off=0&f=1 49-state landslide defeat] by Nixon, writing (without explanation), "The evidence that Hiss was a security risk to the United States simply is not convincing," labeling Hiss's conviction "dubious," and suggesting that Nixon's "prosecution of Alger Hiss probably belongs on the same level" as "political demagoguery of the worst sort&mdash;unscrupulous attacks on the patriotism of deeply devoted [http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-15842448.html public servants of the first rank]."<ref>Former Kennedy administration official Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr. would use remarkably similar words the following year to defend [[#refHaynes08|Soviet agent]] Laurence Duggan as "an [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-diplo&month=9704&week=c&msg=zRT5drfjEeXIWFvFkKCqww&user=&pw= able public servant]."</ref>
 
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==Death==
 
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The tide turned against Hiss in 1978, with the publication of Allan Weinstein's ''[[#refWeinstein78|Perjury]]'', which shifted the scholarly consensus to acceptance of Hiss's guilt.<ref>"[B]eginning with Allen Weinstein's ''Perjury'', the scholarly consensus has been that Hiss was guilty." Edward A. Goedeken, "Social Science" (Review of ''The View From Alger's Window'' by Tony Hiss), ''[http://www.libraryjournal.com/ Library Journal]'', [http://books.google.com/books?id=RBvhAAAAMAAJ Vol. 124 (1999)], p. 128</ref> This consensus was strengthened by the October 1996<ref>John Ehrman, "[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/winter_spring01/article01.pdf A Half-Century of Controversy: The Alger Hiss Case]," ''Studies in Intelligence'' (Center for the Study of Intelligence, Central Intelligence Agency), Winter-Spring 2001, No. 10, pp. 9-10</ref> release by the [[CIA]] and [[NSA]] of the [[Venona project|Venona]] decrypts, including the "Ales" transmission of March 30, 1945.<ref>"For the [http://microformguides.gale.com/Data/Download/9100000C.rtf majority of scholars], the critical ALES transmission puts to rest any doubt about Hiss’s complicity in the Soviet underground." R. Bruce Craig, [http://www.upei.ca/history/bcraig specialist in Cold War history]</ref> The following month, on November 15, 1996, [http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss died]. According to [http://english.princeton.edu/component/option,com_faculty/Itemid,99999999/facultyid,11/func,fullview/lang,en/ professor emeritus John V. Fleming of Princeton], "Hiss [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/07/tragic-to-be-blunt.html continued to lie] until his dying day." By then, "just about everyone conceded that he was guilty," reported the [http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/jun2001/salo-j29.shtml left-liberal] Salon.com, "that the brilliant, suave, well-educated, well-connected lawyer-diplomat had indeed been [http://www.salon.com/media/media961119.html a Communist and a spy] for the Soviet Union during the 1930s and '40s." Further confirmation came in 2009, when the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars posted [[#refVas|Vassiliev's notebooks]] online.<ref>"The material in the Vassiliev notebooks corroborates the suspicion that Hiss was a longtime agent of Soviet military intelligence. That echoes the findings of Venona Project analysts, who concluded years ago that the code name 'Ales' in the intercepted Soviet cables was 'probably Alger Hiss.'" Alex Kingsbury, "[http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/2009/07/17/declassified-documents-reveal-kgb-spies-in-the-us.html Declassified Documents Reveal KGB Spies in the U.S.], ''U.S. News and World Report'', July 17, 2009</ref>
 
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"Given the fervour exhibited by his loyalists," observe [http://www.loc.gov/loc/lcib/10012/haynes.html Library of Congress Cold War historian and Soviet espionage expert John Earl Haynes] and [http://polisci.emory.edu/faculty%20pages/klehr.htm Emory University professor Harvey Klehr], "it is unlikely that anything will convince [[#refTLS09|the remaining diehards]]." Asked what evidence he would accept of Hiss's guilt, reported [https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/95unclass/Warner.html ex-Communist] [http://content.cdlib.org/view?docId=tf5n39n7hn&chunk.id=c01-1.7.6.4&brand=oac Sidney Hook], one Columbia University professor admitted, "Even if Hiss himself were to confess his guilt, I wouldn't believe it."<ref>Sidney Hook, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=sVJYAAAAMAAJ Out of Step: An Unquiet Life in the 20th Century]'' (New York: Harper & Row, 1987) ISBN 0060156325, p. 291; cf. Sidney Hook, "The Strange Case of Whittaker Chambers," ''Encounter'', January 1976, p. 78. Likewise, when the FBI was looking for old Hiss family letters to compare with the Baltimore documents and pumpkin papers, the headmistress of Washington’s [http://dcsportsfan.com/article.aspx?aid=2472 elite] [http://www.potomacschool.org/about-us/history-of-potomac/index.aspx Potomac School] (apparently [http://www.nyrevels.org/graphics/preston.gif Carol Preston])&mdash;who, "dressed in an upper class fashion and with mannerisms to match, seethed with venom” as she “refused to give any letters”&mdash;“said that if Alger Hiss told her himself that he was a Soviet spy she wouldn't believe it." ([[#refSchecter02|Schecter 2002]]: 170) A [http://www.thenation.com/archive/passings-0 professional Hiss partisan] made a remarkably similar confession. [[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 208</ref>
 
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==Related Articles==
 
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* [[Alger Hiss and the Volkogonov Affair]]
 
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* <cite id=reflegacy>[[Legacy of Alger Hiss]]</cite>
 
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==Notes==
 
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{{reflist|3}}
 
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== Further reading ==
 
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<div class="references-small">
 
−
* <cite id=refChambers52>Whittaker Chambers, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xrqbAAAACAAJ Witness]'' (Washington: Regnery, 1952) ISBN 0895267896</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refWeinstein78>Allen Weinstein, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=YRyoAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case]'' (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1978) ISBN 0394495462</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refSpies09>John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=qCAVQ_cdomcC Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300123906</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refTanenhaus97>Sam Tanenhaus, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=WNp4AAAAMAAJ Whittaker Chambers: A Biography]'' (New York: Random House , 1997) ISBN 0-375-75145-9</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refWhite04>G. Edward White, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FvR4HBTiYzAC Alger Hiss's Looking-glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy]'' (Oxford University Press, 2004) ISBN 0195182553</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refJacoby09>Susan Jacoby, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nLU0z6PlTHAC Alger Hiss and the Battle for History]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), ISBN 0300121334</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refMoynihan98>Daniel Patrick Moynihan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FWq-5a5tqH0C Secrecy: The American Experience]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999) ISBN 0300080794</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refHK99>John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=dIsmm_ZLHcIC Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1999), ISBN 0300077718</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refRomerstein01>Herbert Romerstein and Eric Breindel, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=mVpWH51F7toC The Venona Secrets: Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors]'' (Washington: Regnery Publishing, 2001), ISBN 0895262258</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refHaunted>Allen Weinstein and Alexander Vassiliev, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=LgPgAAAAMAAJ The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America&mdash;the Stalin Era]'', (New York: Random House, 1999), ISBN 0375755365</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refSword>Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=9TWUAQ7Xof8C The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2000), ISBN  0-465-00310-9</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refSchecter02>Jerrold and Leona Schecter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=M2pbieYYHrYC Sacred Secrets: How Soviet Intelligence Operations Changed American History]''(Dulles, Va.: Potomac Books Inc., 2002) ISBN 1574883275</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refAG90>Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=PfdGAQAACAAJ KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev]'' (New York: Harpercollins, 1990) ISBN 0060166053</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refSudoplatov95>Anatoli Sudoplatov, Pavel Sudoplatov, Leona P. Schecter and Jerrold L. Schecter, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6UhoPwAACAAJ Special Tasks: The Memoirs of an Unwanted Witness, a Soviet Spymaster]'' (Boston: Back Bay Books, 1995), ISBN 0316821152</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refHK06>John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=pNwEyL1b6XQC Early Cold War Spies: The Espionage Trials That Shaped American Politics]'' (Cambridge University Press, 2006), ISBN 0521857384</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refPowers04>Thomas Powers, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=6ZS4Y7gmT84C Intelligence Wars: American Secret History from Hitler to Al-Qaeda]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004) ISBN 1590170989</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refHK03>John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Be2GAAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 In Denial: Historians, Communism & Espionage]'' (San Francisco: Encounter Books, 2003), ISBN 159403088X</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refKHA98>Harvey Klehr, John Earl Haynes, and Kirill Mikhaĭlovich Anderson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=nHKvFVnBLGYC The Soviet World of American Communism]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1998), ISBN 0300071507</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refMorgan04>Ted Morgan, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=4ijWhgff9XEC Reds: McCarthyism in Twentieth-Century America]'' (Random House, Inc., 2004) ISBN 081297302X</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refBagley07>Tennent H. Bagley, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fLdPjg5PFrcC Spy Wars: Moles, Mysteries, and Deadly Games]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), ISBN 0300121989</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refDallas05>Gregor Dallas, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tOyMNjvKajYC 1945: The War that Never Ended]'' (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2005), ISBN 0300109806</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refOlmstead02>Kathryn S. Olmsted, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=kwQQDXs__wwC Red Spy Queen: A Biography of Elizabeth Bentley]'' (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 2002), ISBN 0807827398</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refHerken03> Gregg Herken, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=7s0NGIfflOgC Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence, and Edward Teller]'' (Macmillan, 2003) ISBN 080506589X (See also [http://www.brotherhoodofthebomb.com/ Brotherhood of the Bomb])</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refKempton04>Murray Kempton, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=1Lfvn8W9LfEC Part of Our Time: Some Ruins and Monuments of the Thirties]'' (New York Review of Books, 2004), ISBN 1590170873</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refMorrow05>Lance Morrow, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=CEC30zxnXSMC The Best Year of Their Lives: Kennedy, Johnson, and Nixon in 1948: Learning the Secrets of Power]'' (New York: Basic Books, 2005), ISBN 0465047238</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refStettinius75>Edward R. Stettinius Jr., ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=v9N3AAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 The Diaries of Edward R Stettinius Jr , 1943-1946]'', ed. Thomas M. Campbell and George C. Herring (New York: New Viewpoints, 1975), ISBN 0531055701</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refBerle52>Adolf Augustus Berle, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=fed2AAAAMAAJ Navigating the Rapids, 1918-1971: From the Papers of Adolf A. Berle]'' (Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1973) ISBN 0151648204</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refWilson2002>Baron Charles McMoran Wilson, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=tF3at4qQ7B4C Churchill at War, 1940-1945]'' (London: Carroll & Graf Publishers, 2002) ISBN 0786710411</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refRovere96>Richard Halworth Rovere, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=c5GOLPhg954C Senator Joe McCarthy]'' (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996) ISBN 0520204727</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refHerman99>Arthur M. Herman, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=DIibZoDyADEC Joseph McCarthy: Reexamining the Life and Legacy of America's Most Hated Senator]'' (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1999), ISBN 0684836254</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refEvans07>M. Stanton Evans, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=vz42rDYmf3wC Blacklisted by History: The Untold Story of Senator Joe McCarthy and His Fight Against America's Enemies]'' (New York: Crown Forum, 2007), ISBN 978-1-4000-8105-9</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refZeligs67>Meyer A. Zeligs, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=aytCAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Friendship and Fratricide: An Analysis of Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss]'' (New York: Viking Press, 1967) ASIN B000NZOTWM</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refSmith76>John Chabot Smith, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=bCYrAAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Alger Hiss, the True Story]'' (Austin, Tex.: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1976), ISBN 0030137764</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refTHiss77>Tony Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=SPV2AAAAMAAJ&pgis=1 Laughing Last: Alger Hiss by Tony Hiss]'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1977), ISBN 039524899X</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refHiss2000>Tony Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ugT4OU18kPsC The View From Alger's Window]'' (New York: Vintage Books, 2000) ISBN 0375701281</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refLevine73>Isaac Don Levine, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Zts3AAAAIAAJ&pgis=1 Eyewitness To History: Memoirs and Reflections of a Foreign Correspondent for Half a Century]'' (New York: Hawthorn Books, 1973), ASIN B000ONBAW0</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refConquest91>Robert Conquest, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=Bp31GmfH-6YC The Harvest of Sorrow: Soviet Collectivization and the Terror-Famine]'' (Oxford University Press, 1987) ISBN 0195051807</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refGall99>Gilbert J. Gall, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=xCYoLnaWXdoC Pursuing Justice: Lee Pressman, the New Deal, and the CIO]'' (Albany, N.Y: SUNY Press, 1999), ISBN 079144103</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refAvrich05>Paul Avrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=8z8mdUYp-6gC Anarchist Voices: An Oral History of Anarchism in America]'' (Oakland, Calif.: AK Press, 2005), ISBN 1904859275</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refAvrich96>Paul Avrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=lm0SCspDOjQC Sacco and Vanzetti: The Anarchist Background]'' (Princeton University Press, 1996), ISBN 0691026041</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refNekrich97>Aleksandr M. Nekrich, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=ZliWXGydrzAC Pariahs, Partners, Predators: German-Soviet Relations, 1922-1941]'' (New York: Columbia University Press, 1997), ISBN 0231106769</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refChang05>Jung Chang, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=3EZwAAAAMAAJ Mao: The Unknown Story]'' (London: Jonathan Cape, 2005) ISBN 0-224-07126-2</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refMark03>Eduard Mark, "[http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/routledg/int/2003/00000018/00000003/art00003 Who was 'Venona's' 'Ales'? Cryptanalysis and the Hiss Case]," ''Intelligence and National Security'' 18, No. 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 54-55, 57-88, 62, 64</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refHiss89>Alger Hiss, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=jot3UHV59BgC Recollections of a Life]'' (New York: Arcade, 1989) ISBN 1559700246</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refBerresford92>John W. Berresford, "Whittaker Chambers and Alger Hiss: The Courts Decide," [http://books.google.com/books?id=ADMvAQAAIAAJ ''Federal Bar Journal'' Vol. 40] (February 1993), pp. 96-108</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refCohen93>Jacob Cohen, "Innocent after all? - the Kremlin files and the guilt or innocence of convicted spy Alger Hiss," ''[http://www.nationalreview.com/ National Review]'', Vol. 45 (January 18, 1993)</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refRemnick86>David Remnick, “Alger Hiss: Unforgiven and Unforgiving,” ''[http://www.washingtonpost.com/magazine Washington Post Magazine]'', October 12, 1986, pp. 23-31</cite></div>
 
−
 
−
== External links ==
 
−
<div class="references-small">
 
−
* National Security Agency/Central Intelligence Agency/Office of the National Counterintelligence Executive
 
−
:* Central Security Service, [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/declass/venona/index.shtml Venona]
 
−
::* <cite id=refVenona1289>[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/9sep_lippman_views_churchill_roosevelt.pdf 1289 KGB New York to Moscow, 9 September 1944]</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refVenona1506>[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/23oct_stone_fears_fbi.pdf 1506 KGB New York to Moscow, 23 October 1944]</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refVenona1613>[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1944/18nov_lawrence_duggan.pdf 1613 KGB New York to Moscow, 19 November 1944]</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refVenona1822>[http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/venona/1945/30mar_kgb_interviews_gru_agent.pdf 1822 KGB Washington to Moscow, 30 March 1945]</cite>
 
−
:* Center for Cryptologic History, Fort George G. Meade, Md.
 
−
::*<cite id=refBenson95>Robert Louis Benson, Venona Historical Monograph #1: [http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps33230/www.nsa.gov/docs/venona/monographs/monograph-1.html Introductory History of VENONA and Guide to the Translations], 1995</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refNSA95>Thomas R. Johnson, ''American Cryptology during the Cold War: 1945-1989.'' [http://www.nsa.gov/public_info/_files/cryptologic_histories/cold_war_i.pdf Book I: The Struggle for Centralization 1945-1960], 1995</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refVStory>Robert L. Benson, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/coldwar/venona_story.pdf The Venona Story]'', 2001</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refNSA05>Robert J. Hanyok, ''[http://www.nsa.gov/about/_files/cryptologic_heritage/publications/wwii/eavesdropping.pdf Eavesdropping on Hell: Historical Guide to Western Communications Intelligence and the Holocaust, 1939-1945]'', 2005</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refBP95>Robert Louis Benson and Cecil Phillips, ''[http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB278/01.PDF History of Venona]'', 1995</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refBW96>Robert Louis Benson and Michael Warner, eds., ''[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/venona.htm Venona: Soviet Espionage and The American Response,  1939-1957]'' (NSA/CIA, 1996)</cite>
 
−
::*<cite id=refPrefaceBW96>[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/books-and-monographs/venona-soviet-espionage-and-the-american-response-1939-1957/preface.htm Preface]</cite>
 
−
:* Frank J. Rafalko, ed., ''[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/ A Counterintelligence Reader: An American Revolution Into the New Millennium]'' (NCIX)
 
−
::* <cite id=refRafalko2-1>[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap1.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 1: Counterintelligence in World War II]</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refRafalko2-4>[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol2/Vol2Chap4.pdf Vol. 2, Ch. 4: VENONA]</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refRafalko3-1>[http://www.ncix.gov/issues/CI_Reader/Vol3/Vol3Chap1.pdf Vol. 3, Ch. 1: Cold War Counterintelligence]</cite>
 
−
* Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy, ''[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/index.html Secrecy: Report of the Commission on Protecting and Reducing Government Secrecy]'' (Washington: United States Government Printing Office, 1997)
 
−
:* <cite id=refMoyComA>[http://www.access.gpo.gov/congress/commissions/secrecy/pdf/12hist1.pdf Appendix A: Secrecy: A Brief Account of the American Experience]</cite>
 
−
* [http://www.wilsoncenter.org/ Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars], [http://wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=topics.home Cold War International History Project]
 
−
:* <cite id=refYalta45>[http://www.wilsoncenter.org/coldwarfiles/files/Documents/YALTA.pdf Yalta (Crimea) Conference, February 1945] </cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refVas>[http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/index.cfm?topic_id=1409&fuseaction=topics.documents&group_id=511603 The Vassiliev Notebooks]</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refHaynes08>John Earl Haynes, [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Vassiliev_Notebooks_Concordance1.pdf Vassiliev Notebooks Concordance: Cover Names, Real Names, Abbreviations, Acronyms, Organizational Titles, Tradecraft Terminology], 2008</cite>
 
−
::* Alexander Vassiliev
 
−
:::*<cite id=refVasBlack>Black Notebook, [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Black%2520Notebook%2520Original.pdf Original]; [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Black%2520Notebook%2520Transcribed.pdf Transcribed]; [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.or/topics/docs/Black%2520Notebook%2520Translated1.pdf Translated]</cite>
 
−
:::* <cite id=refVasWhite3>White Notebook #3, [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.3_Original.pdf Original]; [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.3_Transcribed.pdf Transcribed]; [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/White_Notebook_No.3_Translated.pdf Translated]</cite>
 
−
:::* <cite id=refVasYellow2>Yellow Notebook #2, [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.2_Original.pdf Original]; [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.2_Transcribed.pdf Transcribed]; [http://legacy.wilsoncenter.org/topics/docs/Yellow_Notebook_No.2_Translated1.pdf Translated]</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refFRUS45>United States Department of State, ''[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/FRUS/FRUS-idx?type=header&id=FRUS.FRUS1945 Foreign Relations of the United States. Conferences at Malta and Yalta, 1945]'' (Washington, DC: United States Government Printing Office, 1955)</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refSilv>[http://www.education-research.org/CSR/Holdings/Silvermaster/summaries.htm FBI Silvermaster file]</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refSilv6>[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster006.pdf Vol. 6: Statement of Elizabeth Terrill Bentley], November 30, 1945</cite>
 
−
::*<cite id=refSilv6.106>[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster006_Folder/Silvermaster006_page106.pdf Page 105 (PDF p. 106)]</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refNKVD>[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster082.pdf Vol. 82: Underground Soviet Espionage Organization (NKVD) in Agencies of the United States Government], November 21, 1946</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refSilv82.120>[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster082_Folder/Silvermaster082_page120.pdf Page 109 (PDF 120)]</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refSilv149>[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/Silvermaster149.pdf Vol. 149]</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refSilv149.40>[http://www.education-research.org/PDFs/splitfiles/splitprocessed/Silvermaster149_Folder/Silvermaster149_page40.pdf FBI memo: Roach to Ladd, RE: Nathan Gregory Silvermaster, et al., March 14, 1946], Summary of File References to Alger Hiss, November 8, 1949, p. 20 (PDF p. 40)</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refUN46>''[http://unyearbook.un.org/1946-47YUN/1946-47_P1_CH1.pdf Yearbook of the United Nations 1947-48]'' (United Nations, Department of Public Information, 1948)</cite>
 
−
* Committee on Un-American Activities, House of Representatives, United States Congress (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)
 
−
:* <cite id=refHUAC48>[http://ia700305.us.archive.org/6/items/hearingsregardin1948unit/hearingsregardin1948unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government], 1948</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refHUAC48.2>[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/23/items/hearingsregardin194802unit/hearingsregardin194802unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communist Espionage in the United States Government&mdash;Part Two], 1948</cite>
 
−
:* Executive Sessions
 
−
::* <cite id=refHUAC8-7-48>[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-7testimony%5B1%5D.htm Testimony of Whittaker Chambers (August 7, 1948)]</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refHUAC8-17-48>[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/8-17testimony.html Testimony of Alger Hiss and Whittaker Chambers (August 17, 1948)]</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refHUAC48-2R>[http://books.google.com/books?id=XxcWAAAAIAAJ Soviet Espionage Within the United States Government, Second Report], 1949</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refHUAC50.2>[http://ia700409.us.archive.org/0/items/hearingsregardin195002unit/hearingsregardin195002unit_bw.pdf Hearings Regarding Communism in the United States Government&mdash;Part 2], 1950</cite>
 
−
* [http://www.archives.gov/ National Archives and Records Administration]
 
−
:*[http://www.trumanlibrary.org/ Harry S. Truman Library and Museum]
 
−
::* <cite id=refTruChron>Raymond H. Geselbracht, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/chron/49chron2.htm The Truman Administration During 1949: A Chronology]</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refTruman8.5.48> [https://trumanlibrary.org/publicpapers/index.php?pid=1771&st=&st1=%20170 170. The President's News Conference], August 5, 1948, Public Papers of the Presidents: Harry S. Truman, 1945-1953</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refBentleyGJ>Records of U.S. Attorneys and Marshals: [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/hstpaper/hiss.htm Transcripts of Grand Jury Testimony in the Alger Hiss Case], Record Group 118, Dates: 1947-1949</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refTrohan1970>Jerry N. Hess, [http://www.trumanlibrary.org/oralhist/trohan.htm Oral History Interview with Walter Trohan], October 7, 1970</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refNARAcities>125. The wreckage of Chicago's Federal Building after the explosion of a bomb allegedly planted by the International Workers of the World (lWW) as a reprisal for the sentencing of the union's leader, "Big Bill" Haywood, and 94 other members for seditious activities, 1918. 165-WW-l64B-7. (american_cities_125.jpg), [http://www.archives.gov/research/american-cities/ Pictures of the American City]</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refHissAppellate>''[http://bulk.resource.org/courts.gov/c/F2/185/185.F2d.822.78.21800.html United States v Alger Hiss]'', 185 F. 2d 822 (Second Circuit Court of Appeals, December 7, 1950)</cite>
 
−
* Subcommittee to Investigate the Administration of the Internal Security Act and Other Internal Security Laws, Committee on the Judiciary, U.S. Senate
 
−
:* Interlocking Subversion in Government Departments (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)
 
−
::* <cite id=refSISS53>[http://ia700407.us.archive.org/23/items/interlockingsubv1953unit/interlockingsubv1953unit_bw.pdf Report], 1953</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refSISS13>[http://ia700304.us.archive.org/24/items/interlockingsubv13unit/interlockingsubv13unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 13], 1953</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refSISS16>[http://ia700303.us.archive.org/6/items/interlockingsubv16unit/interlockingsubv16unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 16], 1954</cite>
 
−
:* Institute of Pacific Relations (Washington: United States Government Printing Office)
 
−
::* <cite id=refIPR52>[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif1952unit/instituteofpacif1952unit_bw.pdf S. Rpt. 2050, 82d Cong., 2d sess., Serial 11574], Report of the Committee on the Judiciary Pursuant to S. Res. 366, 1952</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refIPR9>[http://ia700309.us.archive.org/31/items/instituteofpacif09unit/instituteofpacif09unit_bw.pdf Hearings, Part 9], 1952</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refFieldUK>[http://nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATID=8544389&CATLN=6&accessmethod=5&j=1 Noel Haviland Field], Records of the Security Service, The National Archives (United Kingdom)</cite>
 
−
* [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/ John Earl Haynes, Historical Writings]
 
−
:* <cite id=refBerle>[http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page100.html Adolf Berle’s Notes on his Meeting with Whittaker Chambers]</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refSchindler05>John R. Schindler, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page61.html Hiss in VENONA: The Continuing Controversy], Center for Cryptologic History Symposium, October 27, 2005</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refFoote>John Earl Haynes, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page63.html Ales: Hiss, Foote, Stettinius?] June 7, 2007</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refHK07>John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, [http://www.johnearlhaynes.org/page70.html “Ales” is Still Hiss: The Wilder Foote Red Herring] (2007 Symposium on Cryptologic History, The Center for Cryptologic History), October 19, 2007</cite>
 
−
* Douglas Linder (2003), Famous Trials (University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Law)
 
−
:*[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hiss.html The Alger Hiss Trials, 1949-50]
 
−
::* <cite id=refChronology>[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hisschronology.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Chronology]</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refLindPump>[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/pumpkinp.html The Pumpkin Papers: Key Evidence in the Alger Hiss Trials]</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refLinder03>Doug Linder (2003), [http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss/hissaccount.html The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Commentary]</cite>
 
−
::* <cite id=refLinderLinks>[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/hiss_links.html The Alger Hiss Trials: Selected Links]</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refHaywood>[http://www.law.umkc.edu/faculty/projects/ftrials/haywood/HAY_BHAY.HTM William D. Haywood]</cite>
 
−
* Denise Noe, "The Alger Hiss Case," TruTV Crime Library (Turner Broadcasting System, Inc./Time Warner)
 
−
:* <cite id=refNoe1>[http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/1.html Part 1: The Promising Mr. Hiss]</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refNoe9>[http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/terrorists_spies/spies/hiss/9.html Part 9: The Tantalizing Typewriter]</cite>
 
−
* Tony Hiss's and The Nation Institute's [http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/home.html "The Alger Hiss Story"] (assess with caution: editorial bias)
 
−
:* <cite id=refAboutTony>"[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/aboutus.html About This Site]" (States that this "Web site has been created with grants from... the Nation Institute," which "is [[#refDTN:TNI|closely linked]] to" ''The Nation'', "a magazine that identified itself as solidly pro-Hiss in the 1950s" ([[#refWhite04|White 2004]]: 133), and is now "pretty much the last general-interest magazine in America that [[#refNoah01|remains committed]] to the idea of Hiss's innocence" (aka "America's leading forum for Alger [http://fdsys.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/CREC-1996-04-18/html/CREC-1996-04-18-pt1-PgH3640.htm Hiss apologia])&mdash;the ''Nation'' "embraced a [http://gladlylernegladlyteche.blogspot.com/2009/06/of-columns-communists-and-comoes.html prejudiced view] of the Hiss-Chambers affair in 1948 and has been unable to wriggle free even yet." It "[[#refDTN:TNI|receives funding]] from... the Open Society Institute," which is "the most prominent of the numerous foundations belonging to the international billionaire financier [[#refDTN:OSI|George Soros]]." Also states "this Web site will post a... a comprehensive look at the case [[#refLinderLinks|for the defense]]."</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refTonyTimeline>[http://homepages.nyu.edu/~th15/timeline.html The Timeline], "The Alger Hiss Story"</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refNoah01>Timothy Noah, [http://www.slate.com/id/1007346/pagenum/all/ Alger Hiss Innocent, Anticommunists Declare!], Slate.com, March 22, 2001</cite>
 
−
* Svetlana Chervonnaya's and The Nation Institute's [http://documentstalk.com/ DocumentsTalk.com] (assess with caution: editorial bias)
 
−
* [http://discoverthenetworks.org Discover The Networks]
 
−
:* <cite id=refDTN:TNI>[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/groupProfile.asp?grpid=6780 The Nation Institute]</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refDTN:OSI>[http://www.discoverthenetworks.org/funderprofile.asp?fndid=5181&category=79 Open Society Institute]</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refTL50>Ralph de Toledano and Victor Lasky, ''[http://www.americandeception.com/index.php?action=downloadpdf&photo=/PDFsml_AD/Seeds_Of_Treason-Ralph_de_Toledano_and_Victor_Lasky-1950-278pgs-POL.sml.pdf&id=343 Seeds of Treason: The True Story of the Hiss-Chambers Tragedy]'' (Funk & Wagnalls, 1950), ASIN B0007DS43A</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refKriv39>Walter Krivitsky, ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=gctvHAAACAAJ In Stalin's Secret Service: An Exposé of Russia’s Secret Policies by the Former Chief of the Soviet Intelligence in Western Europe]'' (Harper & Brothers, 1939)</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refOSullivan07>Christopher D. O'Sullivan, "[http://www.gutenberg-e.org/osc01/frames/fosc08.html 8. Resignation]," ''Sumner Welles, Postwar Planning, and the Quest for a New World Order, 1937-1943'' (Columbia University Press, 2007) ISBN 0231142587</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refYUNHiss>[http://web.archive.org/web/20070318221544/http://www.un.org/depts/dhl/unationsday/docs/hiss13february11october90.pdf Alger Hiss Interview], United Nations Oral History Project, Yale University, 1990 (Archive)</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refMHSL>[http://www.mdhs.org/library/Mss/ms002504.html Alger Hiss Collection, 1934-1979], Maryland Historical Society</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refZeligs80>[http://oasis.lib.harvard.edu/oasis/deliver/~law00092 Zeligs, Meyer Aaron. Papers, 1923-1978: Finding Aid]. Harvard Law School Library, October 1, 1980</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refBogdanor08>Professor Vernon Bogdanor, [http://www.gresham.ac.uk/lectures-and-events/harry-truman-president-1945-1953 Roosevelt to Bush: The American Presidency - Transformation and Change. Harry Truman, President, 1945-1953], Gresham College, London, January 29, 2008</cite>
 
−
* James Thomas Gay, "[http://www.historynet.com/the-alger-hiss-spy-case.htm The Alger Hiss Spy Case]" ''American History,'' May-June 1998
 
−
* <cite id=refWard88>Geoffrey C. Ward, "[http://50.56.66.97/content/unregretfully-alger-hiss?page=show Unregretfully, Alger Hiss]," ''American Heritage'', Vol. 39, Issue 7 (November 1988)</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refPlatt99>Rorin M. Platt, "[http://www.unc.edu/depts/diplomat/AD_Issues/amdipl_11/platt_reds.html Red Scare or Red Menace?]" ''American Diplomacy'', Vol. 4, No. 2 (Summer 1999)</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refBC07>Kai Bird and Svetlana Chervonnaya, "[http://www.theamericanscholar.org/the-mystery-of-ales-2/print/ The Mystery of Ales]," ''The American Scholar,'' Summer 2007</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refEhrmanSI51.4>John Ehrman, "[https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/csi-publications/csi-studies/studies/vol51no4/pdf-files/Ehrman_Alger_Hiss_Again-Web%20(U).pdf 'The Mystery of ALES': Once Again, the Alger Hiss Case]," ''Studies in Intelligence'', Vol. 51, No. 4</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refPowell06>Jason Powell, [http://ehistory.osu.edu/osu/reviews/reviewview.cfm?id=2 Review: ''The Breaking Point: Hemingway, Dos Passos, and the Murder of Jose Robles''], eHistory at OSU (Ohio State University), January 2006</cite>
 
−
* H-Net Discussion Networks, Humanities and Social Sciences Online (Michigan State University)
 
−
:* <cite id=refKobyakov04>Julius Kobyakov, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=H-Diplo&month=0403&week=d&msg=e%2bXZZ%2bYk%2bEQI/ZPeKPATrQ&user=&pw= ALES/Hiss], H-DIPLO Discussion Logs, March 22, 2004</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refBLH05>Ronald Bachman and Harold Leich (tr.), with John Earl Haynes, [http://h-net.msu.edu/cgi-bin/logbrowse.pl?trx=vx&list=h-hoac&month=0503&week=b&msg=ycrsVT7M1e2L9EECiLFskg&user=&pw= Alexander Vassiliev's Notes on Anatoly Gorsky's December 1948 Memo on Compromised American Sources and Networks], History of American Communism (H-HOAC) Discussion Network, March 14, 2005</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refLowCher>David Lowenthal with Svetlana A. Chervonnaya, [http://hnn.us/articles/11581.html Gorsky Report: Dec 23, 1949], History News Network (George Mason University), May 2, 2005</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refTLS09>John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr, "[http://entertainment.timesonline.co.uk/tol/arts_and_entertainment/the_tls/article6731654.ece Alger Hiss and the KGB]," TLS Letters, ''The Times Literary Supplement'', July 29, 2009</cite>
 
−
* [http://query.nytimes.com/search/sitesearch?query=alger+hiss&more=date_all ''The New York Times'']
 
−
*: <cite id=refWhalen48>Robert G. Whalen, "[http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/chambers-strange.html Hiss and Chambers: Strange Story of Two Men]," December 12, 1948</cite>
 
−
*: <cite id=refSchwartz88>Stephen Schwartz, [http://www.nytimes.com/1988/01/24/books/intellectuals-and-assassins-annals-of-stalin-s-killerati.html?pagewanted=all Intellectuals and Assassins: Annals of Stalin's Killerati]," January 24, 1988</cite>
 
−
*: <cite id=refLH88>Christopher Lehmann-Haupt, "[http://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/12/books/books-of-the-times-alger-hiss-recalls-emotional-side-of-his-2-trials.html Alger Hiss Recalls Emotional Side of His 2 Trials]," May 12, 1988</cite>
 
−
*: <cite id=refCook91>Joan Cook, "[http://www.nytimes.com/1991/08/13/nyregion/john-j-abt-lawyer-dies-at-87-communist-party-counsel-in-us.html John J. Abt, Lawyer, Dies at 87]," August 13, 1991</cite>
 
−
*: <cite id=refTanenhaus93>Sam Tanenhaus, "[http://www.nytimes.com/1993/10/15/opinion/hiss-case-smoking-gun.html?pagewanted=all Hiss Case 'Smoking Gun'?]" October 15, 1993</cite>
 
−
*: <cite id=refScott96>Janny Scott, "[http://www.nytimes.com/books/97/03/09/reviews/hiss-obit.html Alger Hiss, 92, Central Figure in Long-Running Cold War Controversy]," November 16, 1996</cite>
 
−
*: <cite id=refBronner98>Ethan Bronner, "[http://www.nytimes.com/1998/10/18/weekinreview/witching-hour-rethinking-mccarthyism-if-not-mccarthy.html?pagewanted=all Witching Hour; Rethinking McCarthyism, if Not McCarthy]," October 18, 1998</cite>
 
−
*: <cite id=refBarron01>James Barron, "[http://www.nytimes.com/2001/08/16/technology/online-the-hiss-defense-doesn-t-rest.html?pagewanted=all Online, the Hiss Defense Doesn't Rest]," August 16, 2001</cite>
 
−
*: <cite id=refNYT9.5.1918>"[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9502E2DB1439E13ABC4D53DFBF668383609EDE IWW Bomb Kills Four in Chicago]," September 5, 1918</cite>
 
−
* [http://search.time.com/results.html?D=%22alger+hiss%22&sid=123AA95F951F&Ntt=%22alger+hiss%22&Ntk=WithBody2009&Ntx=mode+matchallpartial%2bsnip%2bp_body%3a25&Ns=p_date_range|0&N=0&Nty=1&srchCat=Full+Archive ''Time'' magazine]
 
−
:* <cite id=refTime11.5.45>"[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,852408,00.html Latin America: Democracy's Bull]," November 5, 1945</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refTime12.20.48>"[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799517,00.html National Affairs: Three Rings]," December 20, 1948</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refTimeDuggan49>"[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,799590,00.html Investigations: The Man in the Window]," January 3, 1949</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refTime7.4.49>"[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,888531,00.html The Judiciary: Your Witness, Mr. Murphy]," July 4, 1949</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refTime2.13.50>"[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,811892.html National Affairs: The Case of Alger Hiss]," February 13, 1950</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refTime3.3.52>"[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,890230,00.html National Affairs: Another Witness]," March 3, 1952</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refTime75>"[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,917670,00.html Historical Notes: The Pumpkin Papers]," August 11, 1975</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refMorrow96>Lance Morrow, "[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,985608,00.html Fred Astaire Meets the Sad-Sack Dostoyevskian Pudge]," November 25, 1996</cite>
 
−
*''[http://www.nybooks.com/ The New York Review of Books]''
 
−
:* <cite id=refNYRB>Reply by Allen Weinstein, "[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8841 The Hiss Case: An Exchange]," Vol. 23, No 9 (May 27, 1976)</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refNYRB2>Reply by Allen Weinstein, "[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/8747 The Hiss Case: Another Exchange!]" Vol. 23, No. 14 (September 16, 1976)</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refPowers2000>Thomas Powers, "[http://www.nybooks.com/articles/118 The Plot Thickens]," Vol. 47, No 8 (May 11, 2000)</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refER48>Eleanor Roosevelt, "[http://www.gwu.edu/~erpapers/myday/displaydoc.cfm?_y=1948&_f=md001046 My Day]," ''Washington Daily News'', August 16th, 1948</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refQA>[http://www.q-and-a.org/Transcript/?ProgramID=1242 Susan Jacoby, Author, ''Alger Hiss and the Battle for History''], “Q & A,” C-SPAN, July 26, 2009</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refBlack06>Conrad Black, "[http://nationalinterest.org/article/the-yalta-myth-1052 The Yalta Myth]," ''The National Interest,'' September-October 2006</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refRicher04>Matthew Richer, "[http://www.mmisi.org/ma/46_04/richer.pdf The Ongoing Campaign of Alger Hiss: The Sins of the Father]," ''Modern Age'', Vol. 46, No. 4 (Fall 2004)</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refHKV5.09>John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr and Alexander Vassiliev, "[http://www.commentarymagazine.com/viewpdf.cfm?article_id=15120 I.F. Stone, Soviet Agent&mdash;Case Closed]," ''Commentary'', May 2009</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refGuttenplan09>D.D. Guttenplan, "[http://www.thenation.com/article/red-harvest-kgb-america?page=full Red Harvest: The KGB in America]," ''The Nation'', May 25, 2009</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refKlehr04>Harvey Klehr, "[http://www.powells.com/review/2004_02_12.html Devils in America]," ''The New Republic'', February 12, 2004</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refHerman95>Arthur Herman, "[http://www.nationalreview.com/comment/herman200502110737.asp Under Yalta’s Shadow]," ''National Review'', February 11, 2005</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refNovak03>Robert D. Novak, "[http://www.weeklystandard.com/Content/Public/Articles/000/000/002/830wsuop.asp The Origins of McCarthyism: What did Harry Truman know, and when did he know it?]," ''The Weekly Standard'', Vol. 8, Issue 41 (June 30, 2003)</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refGarvin04>Glenn Garvin, "[http://www.reason.com/news/show/29095.html Fools for Communism]," ''Reason'', April 2004</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refRusher04>William A. Rusher, "[http://www.claremont.org/publications/crb/id.1375/article_detail.asp A Closer Look Under The Bed]," ''Claremont Review of Books'', Vol. IV, No. 4 (Fall 2004)</cite>
 
−
* Ralph De Toledano, ''Insight on the News''
 
−
:* <cite id=refToledano97>"[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_n3_v13/ai_19048238/ Embarrassment Aided and Abetted the Top Soviet Spy]," January 27, 1997</cite>
 
−
:* <cite id=refToledano01>"[http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1571/is_47_17/ai_80900413/ Hiss Defenders Covering for the 'Old Man']," December 17, 2001</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refCapshaw07>Ron Capshaw, "[http://archive.frontpagemag.com/readArticle.aspx?ARTID=26415 Alger Hiss: The Left's Religious Icon]," FrontPageMagazine.com, May 4, 2007</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refHornberger95>Jacob G. Hornberger, [http://www.fff.org/freedom/0495a.asp Repatriation — The Dark Side of World War II, Part 3], ''Freedom Daily'', April 1995</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refMICA>[http://www.mica.edu/About_MICA/Facts_and_History/Historical_Timeline/1905-1960_A_Fresh_Start%E2%80%94Rise_of_Mount_Royal_Campus.html 1905-1960: A Fresh Start—Rise of Mount Royal Campus], Maryland Institute College of Art</cite>
 
−
* <cite id=refBLS>[http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl Inflation Calculator], Bureau of Labor Statistics, United States Department of Labor</cite><div>
 
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{{DEFAULTSORT:Hiss, Alger}}
 
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[[Category:Espionage]]
 
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[[Category:Criminals]]
 
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[[Category:KGB Agents and Sources]]
 
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[[Category:United States History]]
 
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[[Category:Featured articles]]
 

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