Changes

English has the smallest alphabet of widely used languages;<ref>Some describe the Hebrew alphabet, without vowels, as having only 22 characters, but modern Hebrew (spoken by a few million people) has more characters than English.  See http://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htm .</ref> this compact simplicity gives English an advantage, particularly in using computers.  For example, modern English lacks accented letters (such as the dots over the "e" in "noël"), hybrid letters (such as the "æ" used in British spelling like "encyclopædia"), and pictograph characters.

English has the smallest alphabet of widely used languages;<ref>Some describe the Hebrew alphabet, without vowels, as having only 22 characters, but modern Hebrew (spoken by a few million people) has more characters than English.  See http://www.omniglot.com/writing/hebrew.htm .</ref> this compact simplicity gives English an advantage, particularly in using computers.  For example, modern English lacks accented letters (such as the dots over the "e" in "noël"), hybrid letters (such as the "æ" used in British spelling like "encyclopædia"), and pictograph characters.

English features easy interchangeability of nouns, verbs, and adjectives, without much variance in form for pronouns and verbs. That promotes communication through brief, cryptic messages if necessary, the style preferred by electronic media.  English enjoys a powerful pipe-like quality, such that one phrase can be cut and pasted to another phrase with ease.  Computer-based cutting and pasting text works more efficiently in English than in many other languages, such as those using pictorial characters. This gives English an advantage in the internet medium, and about 80% of the internet uses English. One out of every five people in the world speak English; it is the most popular second language in non-English-speaking countries.<ref>See Barbara Wallraff, “What Global Language?” 286 Atlantic Monthly No. 5, at 52 (Nov. 2000) (noting that “English is the working language of the Asian trade group ASEAN” and is also “the official language of the European Central Bank”).</ref>

English features easy interchangeability of nouns, verbs, and adjectives, without much variance in form for pronouns and verbs. That promotes communication through brief, cryptic messages if necessary, the style preferred by electronic media.  English enjoys a powerful pipe-like quality, such that one phrase can be cut and pasted to another phrase with ease.  Computer-based cutting and pasting text works more efficiently in English than in many other languages, such as those using pictorial characters. This gives English an advantage in the internet medium, and about 80% of the internet uses English. One out of every five people in the world speak English; in countries where English is not the most popular language (such as France), English is the second most popular language.<ref>See Barbara Wallraff, “What Global Language?” 286 Atlantic Monthly No. 5, at 52 (Nov. 2000) (noting that “English is the working language of the Asian trade group ASEAN” and is also “the official language of the European Central Bank”).</ref>

==The Age of Exploration==

==The Age of Exploration==

The Ming dynasty thereby retreated from the world stage, mostly in order to strengthen Chinese defenses against Mongol threats.  Beijing became the capital of China, and eventually the Ming rulers began to retreat even more completely from the outside world, living in an elaborate Beijing palace known as the “Forbidden City.”  When a devastating famine occurred in China, the rulers were living extravagantly in their secluded palace and cared little for the plight of the peasants.  The people of China revolted, and in 1644, the Ming Dynasty was replaced with the Qing, made up of the Manchu peoples.   

The Ming dynasty thereby retreated from the world stage, mostly in order to strengthen Chinese defenses against Mongol threats.  Beijing became the capital of China, and eventually the Ming rulers began to retreat even more completely from the outside world, living in an elaborate Beijing palace known as the “Forbidden City.”  When a devastating famine occurred in China, the rulers were living extravagantly in their secluded palace and cared little for the plight of the peasants.  The people of China revolted, and in 1644, the Ming Dynasty was replaced with the Qing, made up of the Manchu peoples.   

Under the Qing dynasty, marriage between members of the Chinese and Manchurians was forbidden, and the official spoken language remained Chinese.  Female infanticide occurred, as well as the practice of binding the feet of rich girls and, increasingly, of middle class girls also.  The primary philosophy was Neo-Confucianism, a mixture of Buddhism and traditional Confucianism.  Jesuits attempted to evangelize China, but were not very successful.  At this time all Catholic liturgical services were required to be in Latin, a language that did not fit well with the very different Chinese culture.  Nevertheless, a Jesuit presence in China contributed to the exchange of ideas and technology between the East and the West.  

Under the Qing dynasty, marriage between members of the Chinese and Manchurians was forbidden, and the official spoken language remained Chinese.  Female infanticide occurred, as well as the practice of binding the feet of rich girls and, increasingly, of middle class girls also.  The primary philosophy was Neo-Confucianism, a mixture of Buddhism and traditional Confucianism.  Jesuits (highly educated Catholic priests) attempted to evangelize China, but were not very successful.  At this time all Catholic liturgical services were required to be in Latin, a language that did not fit well with the very different Chinese culture.  Nevertheless, a Jesuit presence in China contributed to the exchange of ideas and technology between the East and the West.  

China did not withdraw completely from world trade during the Ming and Qing dynasties.  China continued to trade with the Spanish, Portuguese, Japanese and Dutch, mainly for silver, which had become the Chinese currency, and with the Russians for furs.  Under the Ming dynasty, beautiful blue and white porcelain was produced and exported.  The influence of the Ming vase spread throughout the Muslim and Christian worlds, as seen in Holland through the production of Delft pottery; in England, Wedgwood China became the finest producer of china.  Other Chinese exports included silk and tea, and imports consisted of spices, textiles and animal skins from Europe.  Maize, sweet potatoes and peanuts were brought over from the Americas and became popular crops in China.

China did not withdraw completely from world trade during the Ming and Qing dynasties.  China continued to trade with the Spanish, Portuguese, Japanese and Dutch, mainly for silver, which had become the Chinese currency, and with the Russians for furs.  Under the Ming dynasty, beautiful blue and white porcelain was produced and exported.  The influence of the Ming vase spread throughout the Muslim and Christian worlds, as seen in Holland through the production of Delft pottery; in England, Wedgwood China became the finest producer of china.  Other Chinese exports included silk and tea, and imports consisted of spices, textiles and animal skins from Europe.  Maize, sweet potatoes and peanuts were brought over from the Americas and became popular crops in China.

The development of European nation-states continued throughout the Renaissance and Age of Exploration.  In the 1400s and 1500s, the most powerful nation-states were England, France and Spain.  The Holy Roman Empire, which consisted of parts of Italy and Germany, was a powerful but declining force.  Enemies that weakened the Holy Roman Empire included the Ottoman Muslims and the French, who resisted an expansion by the Holy Roman Empire.  The Reformation contributed to the downfall of the Holy Roman Empire, as did the fact that the cultures of Germany and Italy were too different to remain easily within the same empire.

The development of European nation-states continued throughout the Renaissance and Age of Exploration.  In the 1400s and 1500s, the most powerful nation-states were England, France and Spain.  The Holy Roman Empire, which consisted of parts of Italy and Germany, was a powerful but declining force.  Enemies that weakened the Holy Roman Empire included the Ottoman Muslims and the French, who resisted an expansion by the Holy Roman Empire.  The Reformation contributed to the downfall of the Holy Roman Empire, as did the fact that the cultures of Germany and Italy were too different to remain easily within the same empire.

The governments of the European nation-states grew in power by expanding their central authority.  They increased bureaucracy, the size of their armies and the amounts of their taxation.  The rise of absolutist rulers contributed to the centralization of France, Spain, Austria, Russia and Prussia.  The nature of an absolute monarch was expressed well in this famous quote attributed to Louis XIV (1638-1715, King of France since 1643), “L’etat c’est moi!” (“I am the state”).  Absolute monarchs controlled all aspects of government and society including the church, the bureaucracy and the military.  Absolute monarchs claimed “divine right” to rule, stating that they had been appointed by God Himself and were therefore responsible to God alone.  They enjoyed “sovereign immunity” under the view that “the king can do no wrong,” a principle that continues to exist in English and American law today (unless government “waives” its immunity with a law granting limited rights to sue it).

The governments of the European nation-states grew in power by expanding their central authority.  They increased bureaucracy, the size of their armies and the amounts of their taxation.  The rise of absolutist rulers contributed to the centralization of France, Spain, Austria, Russia and Prussia.  The nature of an absolute monarch was expressed well in this famous quote attributed to Louis XIV (1638-1715, King of France since 1643), “L’etat c’est moi!” (“I am the state”).  Absolute monarchs controlled all aspects of government and society including the church, the bureaucracy and the military.  Absolute monarchs claimed “divine right” to rule, stating that they had been appointed by God Himself and were therefore responsible to God alone.  They enjoyed “sovereign immunity” under the view that “the king can do no wrong,” a principle that continues to exist in English and American law today by protecting government against lawsuits for damages (unless government “waives” its immunity with a law).

Religious conflict in England between Catholics and Anglicans caused absolutism to fail there.  The “Glorious Revolution” (so named by supporters of the Church of England) brought down the Catholic King James II and the idea of divine right along with him, placing William and Mary on the throne in 1688.  In France, however, absolutism triumphed until the French Revolution, especially with the reign of Louis XIV, the leading absolute monarch in Europe.  The French court at Versailles during the reign of Louis XIV, who called himself the “Sun King,” was considered rich in culture and an example to other societies.  Truth be told, it was also extravagant and immoral.

Religious conflict in England between Catholics and Anglicans caused absolutism to fail there.  The “Glorious Revolution” (so named by supporters of the Church of England) brought down the Catholic King James II and the idea of divine right along with him, placing William and Mary on the throne in 1688.  In France, however, absolutism triumphed until the French Revolution, especially with the reign of Louis XIV, the leading absolute monarch in Europe.  The French court at Versailles during the reign of Louis XIV, who called himself the “Sun King,” was considered rich in culture and an example to other societies.  Truth be told, it was also extravagant and immoral.

In Spain, Philip II (1527-1598, King of Spain since 1556), who was the great-grandson of Isabella and Ferdinand, worked to keep Spain Catholic, and viewed Elizabeth I of England as his main rival.  But his mighty Spanish Armada was defeated by a quicker English fleet in 1588.  In 1579, William of Orange led the Netherlands in a revolt against their Spanish masters.  These two losses contributed to the weakening of Spanish power.  

In Spain, Philip II (1527-1598, King of Spain since 1556), who was the great-grandson of Isabella and Ferdinand, worked to keep Spain Catholic, and viewed Elizabeth I of England as his main rival.  But his mighty Spanish Armada was defeated by a quicker English fleet in 1588.  In 1579, William of Orange led the Netherlands in a revolt against their Spanish masters.  These two losses contributed to the weakening of Spanish power.  

Meanwhile, artistic pursuits flourished during this period in Spain.  El Greco (1541-1614), a painter, architect and sculptor best known for his paintings of saints and martyrs. as well as a stunning drawn image of a storm over a Spanish town (“A View of Toledo”).  Diego Velázquez painted portraits of the royal family and scenes from daily life at court.  In 1605 Miguel de Cervantes wrote the novel Don Quixote, probably the most influential piece of Spanish literature, and Lope de Vega wrote an estimated 2,000 plays.

Meanwhile, artistic pursuits flourished during this period in Spain.  El Greco (1541-1614), a painter, architect and sculptor best known for his paintings of saints and martyrs. as well as a stunning drawn image of a storm over a Spanish town (“A View of Toledo”).  Diego Velázquez painted [[portraits]] of the royal family and scenes from daily life at court.  In 1605 Miguel de Cervantes wrote the novel Don Quixote, probably the most influential piece of Spanish literature, and Lope de Vega wrote an estimated 2,000 plays.

In Russia, absolute emperors known as “czars” arose.  The first czar of Russia was Ivan IV “the Terrible,” who executed many innocent people during his fearful reign from 1547 to 1584.  Ivan was succeeded by his son Feodor, whose repeated failures led Russia into a “Time of Troubles.”  In 1613, the first of a long line of Romanov czars, Mikhail Romanov, took the throne.  Under Romanov rule, serfs lost almost all of their freedoms.  '''Peter the Great, another Romanov who ruled Russia from 1682 to 1696, instituted sweeping reforms in Russian government and society.  He built St. Petersburg and tried to make European traditions a part of Russia'''.  In the Great Northern War against Sweden, new territories were gained.  Other absolutist rulers arose, such as the Hapsburg Empress Maria Theresa in Austria, and the Hohenzollern Frederick the Great from Prussia.  These two rulers clashed in the War of the Austrian Succession, during which Frederick won the territory of Silesia.   

In Russia, absolute emperors known as “czars” arose.  The first czar of Russia was Ivan IV “the Terrible,” who executed many innocent people during his fearful reign from 1547 to 1584.  Ivan was succeeded by his son Feodor, whose repeated failures led Russia into a “Time of Troubles.”  In 1613, the first of a long line of Romanov czars, Mikhail Romanov, took the throne.  Under Romanov rule, serfs lost almost all of their freedoms.  '''Peter the Great, another Romanov who ruled Russia from 1682 to 1696, instituted sweeping reforms in Russian government and society.  He built St. Petersburg and tried to make European traditions a part of Russia'''.  In the Great Northern War against Sweden, new territories were gained.  Other absolutist rulers arose, such as the Hapsburg Empress Maria Theresa in Austria, and the Hohenzollern Frederick the Great from Prussia.  These two rulers clashed in the War of the Austrian Succession, during which Frederick won the territory of Silesia.   

A remarkable Polish scientist named [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] (1473-1543) made a stunning claim that rocked the religious and scientific world:  he asserted that the earth revolved around the sun, not the sun around the earth.  “Finally we shall place the Sun himself at the center of the Universe.  All this is suggested by the systematic procession of events and the harmony of the whole Universe, if only we face the facts, as they say, ‘with both eyes open.’”  With this bold declaration, Copernicus began the “Scientific Revolution,” which rejected geocentric (earth-centered) theory of the universe dating back over a thousand years to Ptolemy.

A remarkable Polish scientist named [[Nicolaus Copernicus]] (1473-1543) made a stunning claim that rocked the religious and scientific world:  he asserted that the earth revolved around the sun, not the sun around the earth.  “Finally we shall place the Sun himself at the center of the Universe.  All this is suggested by the systematic procession of events and the harmony of the whole Universe, if only we face the facts, as they say, ‘with both eyes open.’”  With this bold declaration, Copernicus began the “Scientific Revolution,” which rejected geocentric (earth-centered) theory of the universe dating back over a thousand years to Ptolemy.

[[Image:Copernican model from book.jpg|right]]

[[Image:Copernican model from book.jpg|right]]

Copernicus worked for years on his book describing his theory, and did not publish it until near the very end of his life.  He entitled it, “De revolutionibus orbium coelestium” (“On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres”), and published it in 1543.  The work was far from perfect: Copernicus assumed that the planets moved in circular revolutions (they actually revolve in ellipses, though the orbit of the earth is nearly circular), and Copernicus also thought that the sun stood motionless as some kind of stationery fixture in the universe (the sun actually moves rapidly too). He mistakenly thought the sun was at the center of the universe.  A diagram from his book displaying circular planetary orbits around the sun is to the right.

Copernicus worked for years on his book describing his theory, and did not publish it until near the very end of his life.  He entitled it, “De revolutionibus orbium coelestium” (“On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres”), and published it in 1543.  His work did have flaws: Copernicus assumed that the planets moved in circular revolutions (they actually revolve in ellipses, though the orbit of the earth is nearly circular), and Copernicus also thought that the sun stood motionless as some kind of stationery fixture in the universe (the sun actually moves rapidly too). He mistakenly thought the sun was at the center of the universe.  A diagram from his book displaying circular planetary orbits around the sun is to the right.

The reception to his work was initially positive within the Catholic Church, which Copernicus served, but to Protestants it conflicted with literal interpretations of the Bible, such as the account of how Joshua benefited from the sun standing still as it passed over the earth.  “And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies. Is not this written in the book of Jasher?  So the sun stood still in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go down about a whole day.”<ref>Joshua 10:13.</ref>  There were few Protestants in Poland then (and now), and thus Copernicus died without much controversy.

The reception to his work was initially positive within the Catholic Church, which Copernicus served, but to Protestants it conflicted with literal interpretations of the Bible, such as the account of how Joshua benefited from the sun standing still as it passed over the earth.  “And the sun stood still, and the moon stayed, until the people had avenged themselves upon their enemies. Is not this written in the book of Jasher?  So the sun stood still in the midst of heaven, and hasted not to go down about a whole day.”<ref>Joshua 10:13.</ref>  There were few Protestants in Poland then (and now), and thus Copernicus died without much controversy.

In the book’s climax, Salviati supposedly proves the Copernican system by citing the movement of the tides.  This theory of Galileo’s was completely false and had already been disproved by Kepler.

In the book’s climax, Salviati supposedly proves the Copernican system by citing the movement of the tides.  This theory of Galileo’s was completely false and had already been disproved by Kepler.

Catholic Church officials were furious about this book and the Inquisition banned its sale.  Galileo was summoned to Rome.  Unlike Luther, Galileo remained a Catholic and fully accepted whatever judgment the Church would render against him.  His “trial” was a bit of a farce, probably put on for show more than anything, with Galileo living in plush quarters at all times.  At the end of the trial Galileo was required to live in a house where the Church could keep an eye on him, much as the American government interned Japanese Americans during World War II to keep an eye on them.<ref>This internment during wartime was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in ''[[Korematsu v. United States]]'', but is widely criticized today.</ref>  Galileo was not imprisoned.  Galileo then continued his scientific work but was kept from embarrassing the Church further.  Galileo never split from the Church and completely accepted his punishment.

Catholic Church officials were furious about this book and then its "Inquisition" banned the sale of the book.  Galileo was summoned to Rome.  Unlike Luther, Galileo remained a Catholic and fully accepted whatever judgment the Church would render against him.  His “trial” was a bit of a farce, probably put on for show more than anything, with Galileo living in plush quarters at all times.  At the end of the trial Galileo was required to live in a house where the Church could keep an eye on him, much as the American government interned Japanese Americans during World War II to keep an eye on them.<ref>This internment during wartime was upheld by the U.S. Supreme Court in ''[[Korematsu v. United States]]'', but is widely criticized today.</ref>  Galileo was not imprisoned.  Galileo then continued his scientific work but was kept from embarrassing the Church further.  Galileo never split from the Church and completely accepted his punishment.

There were other noteworthy scientists during this era.  [[Vesalius]] advanced the understanding of anatomy for medical doctors.  [[William Harvey]] explained the circulatory system in human anatomy.  [[Rene Descartes]] was a French mathematician and philosopher who discovered [[analytical geometry]] and famously declared, “I think, therefore I am.”  [[Francis Bacon]] promoted research based on experimentation.

There were other noteworthy scientists during this era.  [[Vesalius]] advanced the understanding of anatomy for medical doctors.  [[William Harvey]] explained the circulatory system in human anatomy.  [[Rene Descartes]] was a French mathematician and philosopher who discovered [[analytical geometry]] and famously declared, “I think, therefore I am.”  [[Francis Bacon]] promoted research based on experimentation.

'''In England there was Sir [[Isaac Newton]] (1643-1727), who after Jesus Christ was perhaps the most influential man who ever lived'''.  If Newton were alive today, then he would be described as a Christian fundamentalist.  Everything Newton did was inspired and motivated by his powerful faith in the Word of God in the Bible.  Abandoned by his own mother, Newton had an [[inferiority complex]] that drove him to achieve more and more.  In one summer he discovered the laws of [[gravity]] and also [[calculus]], and the world has never been the same since.

A bit later, in England, '''a man named [[Isaac Newton]] (1643-1727) lived, who after Jesus Christ is considered the most influential man in all of world history'''.  If Newton were alive today, then he would be described as a Christian fundamentalist.  Everything Newton did was inspired and motivated by his powerful faith in the Word of God in the Bible.  Abandoned by his own mother, Newton had an [[inferiority complex]] that drove him to achieve more and more.  In one summer he discovered the laws of [[gravity]] and also [[calculus]], and the world has never been the same since.

Like most other men who made great advances in knowledge, Newton discovered and explained something that was unseen:  the invisible force of gravity.  Newton proposed action-at-a-distance, whereby one object attracts another through an invisible force of gravity.  Newton was ridiculed for proposing that something unseen could act at a distance and influence something else millions of miles away from it.  Yet Newton was right.  Speaking of the world in which we live, Newton once said, “Why not try to understand it?”  Newton understood it and explained it to the rest of us, and we are forever grateful.

Like most other men who made great advances in knowledge, Newton discovered and explained something that was unseen:  the invisible force of gravity.  Newton proposed action-at-a-distance, whereby one object attracts another through an invisible force of gravity.  Newton was ridiculed for proposing that something unseen could act at a distance and influence something else millions of miles away from it.  Yet Newton was right.  Speaking of the world in which we live, Newton once said, “Why not try to understand it?”  Newton understood it and explained it to the rest of us, and we are forever grateful.

==The Enlightenment==

==The Enlightenment==

The “Enlightenment” was a philosophical movement in the 1700s that emphasized an intellectual approach rejecting traditional social, political and (sometimes) religious views.  Philosophers in the Enlightenment felt that breakthroughs in science, such as Isaac Newton’s discoveries, could be duplicated in other fields through a systematic and logical approach.  However, Newton’s breakthroughs were inspired by his Christian faith, while some of the Enlightenment thinkers rejected and even criticized Christianity.  There were Enlightenment philosophers in England, France and even the American colonies.  There were stunning new works in classical music, and the arts flourished in what is known as the neo-classical period.

The “Enlightenment” was a philosophical movement in the 1700s that emphasized an intellectual approach, and rejected traditional social, political and (sometimes) religious views.  Philosophers in the Enlightenment felt that breakthroughs in science, such as Isaac Newton’s discoveries, could be duplicated in other fields through a systematic and logical approach.  However, Newton’s breakthroughs were inspired by his Christian faith, while some of the Enlightenment thinkers rejected and even criticized Christianity.  There were Enlightenment philosophers in England, France and even the American colonies.  There were new works in classical music, and the arts flourished in what is known as the neo-classical period.

Notice a bias in the term “Enlightenment” itself.  The term makes it appear that people, some who rejected religion, became enlightened compared to their ignorant ancestors.  In fact, the achievements of the so-called “Enlightenment” movement were not any greater than other movements and periods in history, and there are valid criticisms of the Enlightenment.

Notice a bias in the term “Enlightenment” itself.  The term makes it appear that people, some who rejected religion, became enlightened compared to their ignorant ancestors.  In fact, the achievements of the so-called “Enlightenment” movement were not any greater than other movements and periods in history, and there are valid criticisms of the Enlightenment.

Frenchman Voltaire (1694-1778) was a leading philosopher in the Enlightenment, advocating freedom everywhere and emphasizing his form of reason.  He wrote ''The Candide'', in which Voltaire described many bad things that happen to Candide, in order to make the point that the world could be a better place.  Increased freedom was Voltaire’s way of improving things.  His ideas later formed the basis of the French Revolution, when many innocent people (including the French royalty and much of the aristocracy) were murdered and churches were destroyed amid a reign of terror.

Frenchman Voltaire (1694-1778) was a leading philosopher in the Enlightenment, advocating freedom everywhere and emphasizing his form of reason.  He wrote ''The Candide'', in which Voltaire described many bad things that happen to Candide, in order to make the point that the world could be a better place.  Increased freedom was Voltaire’s way of improving things.  His ideas later formed the basis of the French Revolution, when many innocent people (including the French royalty and much of the aristocracy) were murdered, and churches were destroyed amid a reign of terror.

Englishman John Locke (1632-1704) was the leading political philosopher, whose ideas helped the American colonists form a new government.  Locke described society as a contract between an individual and society.  This was a radical concept at a time when monarchs and the divine right of kings was the controlling theory.  Locke’s view helped lay the foundation for the constitutional government that we use in the United States.  Locke built on the prior work of Englishmen Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes.

Englishman John Locke (1632-1704) was the leading political philosopher, whose ideas helped the American colonists form a new government.  Locke described society as a contract between an individual and society.  This was a radical concept at a time when monarchs and the divine right of kings was the controlling theory.  Locke’s view helped lay the foundation for the constitutional government that we use in the United States.  Locke built on the prior work of Englishmen Francis Bacon and Thomas Hobbes.

The Scotsman David Hume (1711-1776) was a philosopher and historian who promoted materialism and naturalism rather than spirituality.  He was a “skeptic” (non-believer) towards religion, and he penned ''A Treatise on Human Nature''.  He quipped, “You can tell what is inside a person’s soul by what comes out if it.”  Hume is considered the greatest philosopher to write in English, but that is only because there were so few good English philosophers.  Hume has been criticized for his atheistic approach and his chief claim to fame is that Charles Darwin declared Hume to have been his central influence.  “Darwin’s bulldog,” Thomas Henry Huxley, also relied on Hume’s philosophy.  Hume believed in relativism rather than absolute truth, and that not even what God creates has absolute beauty: “Beauty in things exists merely in the mind which contemplates them,” Hume declared.<ref>David Hume’s ''Essays, Moral and Political'' (1742).</ref>

The Scotsman David Hume (1711-1776) was a philosopher and historian who promoted materialism and naturalism rather than spirituality.  He was a “skeptic” (non-believer) towards religion, and he penned ''A Treatise on Human Nature''.  He quipped, “You can tell what is inside a person’s soul by what comes out if it.”  Hume is considered the greatest philosopher to write in English, but that is only because there were so few good English philosophers.  Hume has been criticized for his atheistic approach and his chief claim to fame is that Charles Darwin declared Hume to have been his central influence.  “Darwin’s bulldog,” Thomas Henry Huxley, also relied on Hume’s philosophy.  Hume believed in relativism rather than absolute truth, and that not even what God creates has absolute beauty: “Beauty in things exists merely in the mind which contemplates them,” Hume declared.<ref>David Hume’s ''Essays, Moral and Political'' (1742).</ref>

The German Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was one of the most famous philosophers ever.  In his “A Critique of Pure Reason,” Kant criticizes pure reason as a guide to life.  Kant may not have been a Christian himself, but he considered Christian values to be the best values in the world.  Kant also established a systematic basis for critical philosophy and suggested a material origin for the solar system.  Kant’s own suggestion for a moral daily life was this:  don’t do something which, if everyone did it, then the outcome would be bad.  Expressed another way, an '''act is moral only if it works as a rule for everyone'''.  For example, littering would be wrong because if everyone did it, then there would be an ugly mess.  Kant is taught in all college philosophy departments to this day.

The German Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) was one of the greatest philosophers ever.  In his ''A Critique of Pure Reason'', Kant criticizes pure reason as a guide to life.  Kant may not have been a Christian himself, but he considered Christian values to be the best values in the world.  Kant also established a systematic basis for critical philosophy and suggested a material origin for the solar system.  Kant’s own suggestion for a moral daily life was this:  don’t do something which, if everyone did it, then the outcome would be bad.  Expressed another way, an '''act is moral only if it works as a rule for everyone'''.  For example, littering would be wrong because if everyone did it, then there would be an ugly mess.  Kant is taught in all college philosophy departments to this day.

Finally, let’s recognize American contributions during the Enlightenment.  The greatest works about government were created by the Founding Fathers.  These works include the Declaration of Independence (1776) with its statement of inalienable rights and a right to break the social contract with a ruler when he (the king) violates natural rights.  The United States Constitution (1787) gave the world a masterful design for government.  The Federalist Papers (1788), and particularly articles by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison (most notably No. 10), were also significant.

Finally, let’s recognize American contributions during the Enlightenment.  The greatest works about government were created by the Founding Fathers.  These works include the Declaration of Independence (1776) with its statement of inalienable rights and a right to break the social contract with a ruler when he (the king) violates natural rights.  The United States Constitution (1787) gave the world a masterful design for government.  The Federalist Papers (1788), and particularly articles by Alexander Hamilton and James Madison (most notably No. 10), were also significant.