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World History

World History

'''Outline of Lecture: '''

Fourth Lecture – Ancient History

'''I. Introduction'''

==Introduction==

The last great ancient civilization was the Roman empire, which many consider to be the greatest of all.  We will spend our entire class on it.

The last great ancient civilization was the Roman empire, which many consider to be the greatest of all.  We will spend our entire class on it.

'''II. The Roman Empire'''

==The Roman Empire==

Around 2000 B.C., Indo-Europeans settled the Italian peninsula where Italy is now.  “Indo-Europeans” is a very general classification that includes peoples stretching all the way from India to Europe, and who spoke any of dozens of Indo-European languages, including Sanskrit in India, Persian in the Middle East, Slavic in Eastern Europe and Germanic, Italic and Celtic languages in Europe.

Around 2000 B.C., Indo-Europeans settled the Italian peninsula where Italy is now.  “Indo-Europeans” is a very general classification that includes peoples stretching all the way from India to Europe, and who spoke any of dozens of Indo-European languages, including Sanskrit in India, Persian in the Middle East, Slavic in Eastern Europe and Germanic, Italic and Celtic languages in Europe.

'''A. The Beginnings of the Roman Republic'''

===The Beginnings of the Roman Republic===

The beginnings of the Roman empire, so called because its capital in the west was Rome, stretch back as early as the 8th century B.C.  Dorians had invaded Greece around 1000 B.C. and forced it into a Dark Age; some Greeks fled to the Italian peninsula and named the region “Italy”.  By legend, in 753 B.C. two brothers named Romulus and Remus founded the city of Rome on the Tiber River, 15 miles inland from the Tyrrhenian Sea of the Mediterranean Sea.  According to legend, the boys were descendents of Aeneas, who was a refugee of the mythical Trojan War featured in the masterpiece of Greek literature, “The Illiad,” and their father was the god Mars.  Abandoned as babies and thrown into the Tiber River by their jealous uncle, the boys were rescued and raised by a mother wolf who had lost her cubs.

The beginnings of the Roman empire, so called because its capital in the west was Rome, stretch back as early as the 8th century B.C.  Dorians had invaded Greece around 1000 B.C. and forced it into a Dark Age; some Greeks fled to the Italian peninsula and named the region “Italy”.  By legend, in 753 B.C. two brothers named Romulus and Remus founded the city of Rome on the Tiber River, 15 miles inland from the Tyrrhenian Sea of the Mediterranean Sea.  According to legend, the boys were descendents of Aeneas, who was a refugee of the mythical Trojan War featured in the masterpiece of Greek literature, “The Illiad,” and their father was the god Mars.  Abandoned as babies and thrown into the Tiber River by their jealous uncle, the boys were rescued and raised by a mother wolf who had lost her cubs.

As good as Roman law was, the Roman military holds an even higher place in World history.  Every Roman male who could serve in the army was required to serve.  For whatever reason, the Roman soldiers were excellent.  Companies of about 120 men formed Roman “legions” of 3000 to 6000 men, well-equipped with armor that included shields, helmets, swords and even javelins.  They were considered nearly invincible and could easily defeat the Greeks.  In 272 B.C., the Roman army crushed the army of Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, who attempted to defend Greek cities in southern Italy.  By 265 B.C., the Romans controlled all of Italy except for the Po Valley.

As good as Roman law was, the Roman military holds an even higher place in World history.  Every Roman male who could serve in the army was required to serve.  For whatever reason, the Roman soldiers were excellent.  Companies of about 120 men formed Roman “legions” of 3000 to 6000 men, well-equipped with armor that included shields, helmets, swords and even javelins.  They were considered nearly invincible and could easily defeat the Greeks.  In 272 B.C., the Roman army crushed the army of Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, who attempted to defend Greek cities in southern Italy.  By 265 B.C., the Romans controlled all of Italy except for the Po Valley.

'''B. The Punic Wars'''

===The Punic Wars===

Rome fought and won a series of important wars known as the Punic (PYOO-nik) Wars between 264 and 146 B.C. against the Phoenician North African city of Carthage on the Mediterranean Sea.  This enabled the Roman republic to gain control of the Mediterranean Sea and exclusive control over trade of wine, olive oil, food and many other goods.  There were three Punic Wars in all, named “Punic” after the Roman term for Phoenician.   

Rome fought and won a series of important wars known as the Punic (PYOO-nik) Wars between 264 and 146 B.C. against the Phoenician North African city of Carthage on the Mediterranean Sea.  This enabled the Roman republic to gain control of the Mediterranean Sea and exclusive control over trade of wine, olive oil, food and many other goods.  There were three Punic Wars in all, named “Punic” after the Roman term for Phoenician.   

In the Third Punic War, the Romans destroyed Carthage (146 B.C.), killed its inhabitants or took them as slaves, and salted its farms to make it impossible to grow crops.  The Romans then went into Macedonia and Greece to defeat it in revenge for having helped Hannibal.  By the end, Rome controlled all around the Mediterranean Sea, which was the entire western civilized world.  The Roman senator Cato the Elder encouraged this revenge by ending every speech with the conclusion, Carthago delenda est: “Carthage must be destroyed.”  The Roman soldiers returned home with their winnings, and with Greek knowledge.  Rome itself became Hellenistic, fascinated by the culture of the Greeks, including their architecture, their language, and their system of justice.  The Roman empire helped spread Greek knowledge further than the Greeks themselves could.

In the Third Punic War, the Romans destroyed Carthage (146 B.C.), killed its inhabitants or took them as slaves, and salted its farms to make it impossible to grow crops.  The Romans then went into Macedonia and Greece to defeat it in revenge for having helped Hannibal.  By the end, Rome controlled all around the Mediterranean Sea, which was the entire western civilized world.  The Roman senator Cato the Elder encouraged this revenge by ending every speech with the conclusion, Carthago delenda est: “Carthage must be destroyed.”  The Roman soldiers returned home with their winnings, and with Greek knowledge.  Rome itself became Hellenistic, fascinated by the culture of the Greeks, including their architecture, their language, and their system of justice.  The Roman empire helped spread Greek knowledge further than the Greeks themselves could.

'''C. Leading up to an Empire'''

===Leading up to an Empire===

In the eastern Mediterranean, Rome fought wars in Anatolia (present-day Turkey) and Macedonia between 215 and 148 B.C. to gain control over those territories.  By 148 B.C., Rome controlled everything from Spain to Anatolia.

In the eastern Mediterranean, Rome fought wars in Anatolia (present-day Turkey) and Macedonia between 215 and 148 B.C. to gain control over those territories.  By 148 B.C., Rome controlled everything from Spain to Anatolia.

Finally, near the beginning of the first century B.C., a general named Gaius Marius was elected consul.  He came up with the idea of Rome’s first professional army, and substituted it for the prior system by which only landholding citizens could serve in the military.  Marius hired landless citizens for long terms and quickly gained support from his well-paid army.  Soon, a civil war broke out between the Senate (which supported Marius) and the General Assembly (which supported a general named Cornelius Sulla.)  Finally, Sulla, took power, executed Marius’s followers and pretended to reestablish the power of the Senate in 83 B.C.  But in effect Sulla ruled as another dictator until Spartacus, a Greek slave, led a bloody slave revolt.

Finally, near the beginning of the first century B.C., a general named Gaius Marius was elected consul.  He came up with the idea of Rome’s first professional army, and substituted it for the prior system by which only landholding citizens could serve in the military.  Marius hired landless citizens for long terms and quickly gained support from his well-paid army.  Soon, a civil war broke out between the Senate (which supported Marius) and the General Assembly (which supported a general named Cornelius Sulla.)  Finally, Sulla, took power, executed Marius’s followers and pretended to reestablish the power of the Senate in 83 B.C.  But in effect Sulla ruled as another dictator until Spartacus, a Greek slave, led a bloody slave revolt.

'''D. Julius Caesar'''

===Julius Caesar===

Order was not established until one of the greatest leaders and military minds emerged from the chaos.  Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.) was a brilliant general who laid the groundwork for the future Roman empire.  In 60 B.C. Julius Caesar joined with the wealthy Marcus Crassus and the powerful Roman general and statesman Pompey the Great to rule Rome as the first triumvirate.  In 59 B.C. Julius Caesar became consular and used his position to gain favor with the public, such as by distributing grain to the poor.   

Order was not established until one of the greatest leaders and military minds emerged from the chaos.  Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.) was a brilliant general who laid the groundwork for the future Roman empire.  In 60 B.C. Julius Caesar joined with the wealthy Marcus Crassus and the powerful Roman general and statesman Pompey the Great to rule Rome as the first triumvirate.  In 59 B.C. Julius Caesar became consular and used his position to gain favor with the public, such as by distributing grain to the poor.   

Roman culture flourished under Julius Caesar and the struggle afterwards.  Most notably, Marcus Cicero (106-43 B.C.) became the leading writer, orator and statesman.  His works are read to this day in Latin courses, as he established a high standard for Latin prose.  The language enabled powerful concepts to be expressed succinctly, and often Latin phrases are used today in the legal system and elsewhere.  But there was no freedom of speech in ancient Rome, and when Cicero’s work the Philippics criticized Mark Antony in 43 B.C., he responded by putting Cicero to death.

Roman culture flourished under Julius Caesar and the struggle afterwards.  Most notably, Marcus Cicero (106-43 B.C.) became the leading writer, orator and statesman.  His works are read to this day in Latin courses, as he established a high standard for Latin prose.  The language enabled powerful concepts to be expressed succinctly, and often Latin phrases are used today in the legal system and elsewhere.  But there was no freedom of speech in ancient Rome, and when Cicero’s work the Philippics criticized Mark Antony in 43 B.C., he responded by putting Cicero to death.

'''E. Birth of the Roman Empire'''

===Birth of the Roman Empire===

In 27 B.C. Octavian struck a deal to share power with the Roman Senate, with the Senate bestowing on Octavian the name “Augustus” (a term usually used in reference to the gods), and the Roman empire was born.  The power shared with the Roman Senate was mostly an illusion, however, as Augustus became the dictator, chief priest, and “imperator”, a title which meant he had complete control of the army.  Augustus then ruled from 27 B.C. to A.D. 14, including the time of the birth of Jesus Christ.  

In 27 B.C. Octavian struck a deal to share power with the Roman Senate, with the Senate bestowing on Octavian the name “Augustus” (a term usually used in reference to the gods), and the Roman empire was born.  The power shared with the Roman Senate was mostly an illusion, however, as Augustus became the dictator, chief priest, and “imperator”, a title which meant he had complete control of the army.  Augustus then ruled from 27 B.C. to A.D. 14, including the time of the birth of Jesus Christ.  

Historians criticize huge differences between how the rich and poor lived in Rome, however.  Wealthy Roman citizens enjoyed luxurious homes with private gardens, baths and even country estates.  Banquets and entertainment was frequently for the wealthy, and they enjoyed watching brutal boxing matches to the death between gladiators and even chariot racing in the Colosseum.  Criminals, Christians and slaves were forced to fight vicious animals and be killed by them.  Meanwhile, the poor lived in cramped wood apartment houses, often in small rooms above shops, and often perished in fires.

Historians criticize huge differences between how the rich and poor lived in Rome, however.  Wealthy Roman citizens enjoyed luxurious homes with private gardens, baths and even country estates.  Banquets and entertainment was frequently for the wealthy, and they enjoyed watching brutal boxing matches to the death between gladiators and even chariot racing in the Colosseum.  Criminals, Christians and slaves were forced to fight vicious animals and be killed by them.  Meanwhile, the poor lived in cramped wood apartment houses, often in small rooms above shops, and often perished in fires.

'''F. Roman Emperors'''

===Roman Emperors===

Augustus, known until 27 B.C. as Octavian, was the first Roman Emperor.  He was in charge when Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea, which historians say was around 4 B.C.  Augustus ruled until his death in A.D. 14, whereupon the Roman Senate appointed Augustus’s adopted son Tiberius as the next emperor, the first in a line of Augustus’ successors known as the “Julio-Claudian” emperors.   

Augustus, known until 27 B.C. as Octavian, was the first Roman Emperor.  He was in charge when Jesus was born in Bethlehem in Judea, which historians say was around 4 B.C.  Augustus ruled until his death in A.D. 14, whereupon the Roman Senate appointed Augustus’s adopted son Tiberius as the next emperor, the first in a line of Augustus’ successors known as the “Julio-Claudian” emperors.   

Diocletian also attempted to suppress Christianity by ordering Christians to worship him and brutally persecuting them when they did not.  He was the last emperor to do this.  Diocletian abdicated (resigned) in A.D. 305.

Diocletian also attempted to suppress Christianity by ordering Christians to worship him and brutally persecuting them when they did not.  He was the last emperor to do this.  Diocletian abdicated (resigned) in A.D. 305.

'''G. Roman Contributions'''

===Roman Contributions===

The Roman civilization began as part of Hellenism but developed its own major contributions in engineering (roads and aqueducts), law, the military, and the spread of Christianity.  Roman architecture developed the use of cement and the large arches, domes and vaults, as implemented in the Pantheon (not to be confused with the Parthenon, which was Greek) and the Arch of Constantine.  Roman art used mosaics.  Latin, the great language of the Roman empire, formed the basis for the “romance” languages of Europe still in use today:  French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, and is also the primary language of some churches, such as the Roman Catholic Church.  But the Romans valued education only for its practical benefits and contributed little intellectually.  On a practical level the Romans accomplished much with their roads, orderly society, and system of justice.  Roman law held together its vast empire just as Greek culture held together the Hellenistic world.  Christianity grew in the Roman empire.

The Roman civilization began as part of Hellenism but developed its own major contributions in engineering (roads and aqueducts), law, the military, and the spread of Christianity.  Roman architecture developed the use of cement and the large arches, domes and vaults, as implemented in the Pantheon (not to be confused with the Parthenon, which was Greek) and the Arch of Constantine.  Roman art used mosaics.  Latin, the great language of the Roman empire, formed the basis for the “romance” languages of Europe still in use today:  French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese, and is also the primary language of some churches, such as the Roman Catholic Church.  But the Romans valued education only for its practical benefits and contributed little intellectually.  On a practical level the Romans accomplished much with their roads, orderly society, and system of justice.  Roman law held together its vast empire just as Greek culture held together the Hellenistic world.  Christianity grew in the Roman empire.

'''III. The Roman Empire and Christianity'''

==The Roman Empire and Christianity==

Peter and Paul brought Christianity to many parts of the Roman Empire, and Peter is recognized by the Roman Catholic Church (“catholic” is from a Greek word meaning “universal”) as the first and longest-serving “bishop of Rome,” or “pope” of the Church.  The works of Peter, Paul and others in spreading Christianity are described in their own letters that follow the Gospels in the New Testament.  In the early fifth century, Augustine of Hippo (known to many as “Saint Augustine”) wrote books entitled Confessions and City of God that influenced Christian doctrine for future theologians.  Born in North Africa to a pagan father and a Christian mother, Augustine went through personal spiritual crises before converting entirely to Christianity and advocating the concept of justification by grace alone.  He criticized all the heresies of his time and supported the sacraments of the church.  He also supported the concept of “predestination”, which would later be emphasized by the Frenchman John Calvin during the Protestant Reformation in the 1530s (Calvin fled to Switzerland to promote his ideas).  Above all, Augustine merged classical and Christian viewpoints, and in particular reconciled the classical (Greco-Roman) view about knowledge and virtue with Christian views of sin.  A contemporary of Augustine was Jerome (“Saint Jerome”), who translated the Hebrew Old Testament and Greek New Testament into Latin.  This became known as the Vulgate, and remained the authoritative Bible for over 1000 years.

Peter and Paul brought Christianity to many parts of the Roman Empire, and Peter is recognized by the Roman Catholic Church (“catholic” is from a Greek word meaning “universal”) as the first and longest-serving “bishop of Rome,” or “pope” of the Church.  The works of Peter, Paul and others in spreading Christianity are described in their own letters that follow the Gospels in the New Testament.  In the early fifth century, Augustine of Hippo (known to many as “Saint Augustine”) wrote books entitled Confessions and City of God that influenced Christian doctrine for future theologians.  Born in North Africa to a pagan father and a Christian mother, Augustine went through personal spiritual crises before converting entirely to Christianity and advocating the concept of justification by grace alone.  He criticized all the heresies of his time and supported the sacraments of the church.  He also supported the concept of “predestination”, which would later be emphasized by the Frenchman John Calvin during the Protestant Reformation in the 1530s (Calvin fled to Switzerland to promote his ideas).  Above all, Augustine merged classical and Christian viewpoints, and in particular reconciled the classical (Greco-Roman) view about knowledge and virtue with Christian views of sin.  A contemporary of Augustine was Jerome (“Saint Jerome”), who translated the Hebrew Old Testament and Greek New Testament into Latin.  This became known as the Vulgate, and remained the authoritative Bible for over 1000 years.

Another Jewish rebellion against the Romans occurred in A.D. 132, and this time the Romans completely destroyed the Jewish state and dispersed the Jewish people to faraway lands.  This is known as the “Second Diaspora” (“diaspora” is Greek for dispersion).  The “First Diaspora” was the Babylonian captivity.  There would not be another Jewish homeland until 1948.  After the Second Diaspora some Jewish people converted to Christianity, while others formed Jewish communities in faraway places.  By A.D. 1000, Spain became a center for Jewish scholarship, but the Spanish Inquisition in A.D. 1492 is blamed for expelling Jews from that country.  Eastern Europe welcomed displaced Jewish settlers, and by the 17th century it became the center of the Diaspora.  In the late 1800s many Jewish people migrated to Germany and Britain, but the Holocaust in Germany during World War II destroyed Jewish communities there.  The center of the Diaspora today is the United States, which has a Jewish population of nearly 6 million, more than the 5 million Jewish population of Israel, founded in 1948.  Great Jewish centers such as Egypt and Babylon (now Iraq), which thrived in the first century, now have fewer than 1000 Jewish residents.

Another Jewish rebellion against the Romans occurred in A.D. 132, and this time the Romans completely destroyed the Jewish state and dispersed the Jewish people to faraway lands.  This is known as the “Second Diaspora” (“diaspora” is Greek for dispersion).  The “First Diaspora” was the Babylonian captivity.  There would not be another Jewish homeland until 1948.  After the Second Diaspora some Jewish people converted to Christianity, while others formed Jewish communities in faraway places.  By A.D. 1000, Spain became a center for Jewish scholarship, but the Spanish Inquisition in A.D. 1492 is blamed for expelling Jews from that country.  Eastern Europe welcomed displaced Jewish settlers, and by the 17th century it became the center of the Diaspora.  In the late 1800s many Jewish people migrated to Germany and Britain, but the Holocaust in Germany during World War II destroyed Jewish communities there.  The center of the Diaspora today is the United States, which has a Jewish population of nearly 6 million, more than the 5 million Jewish population of Israel, founded in 1948.  Great Jewish centers such as Egypt and Babylon (now Iraq), which thrived in the first century, now have fewer than 1000 Jewish residents.

'''IV. Military Reasons for the Fall of the Roman Empire (in the West)'''

==Military Reasons for the Fall of the Roman Empire (in the West)==

A barbaric, nomadic tribe known as the Asiatic Huns began moving into Europe from Asia in two independent tribes of nomadic barbarians, the Germanic Goths and Asiatic Huns.  They launched fierce attacks on the Roman empire in the West in the late 300s (A.D.).  The western Goths were known as “Visigoths”.

A barbaric, nomadic tribe known as the Asiatic Huns began moving into Europe from Asia in two independent tribes of nomadic barbarians, the Germanic Goths and Asiatic Huns.  They launched fierce attacks on the Roman empire in the West in the late 300s (A.D.).  The western Goths were known as “Visigoths”.

But the Persians had the same problem plaguing the Romans: raids by uncivilized peoples on their frontiers.  The decline of the ancient world was not so much due to one civilized group defeating another, but rather the calamity of barbarians destroying civilization.

But the Persians had the same problem plaguing the Romans: raids by uncivilized peoples on their frontiers.  The decline of the ancient world was not so much due to one civilized group defeating another, but rather the calamity of barbarians destroying civilization.

'''V. Other Reasons for the Fall of the Roman Empire (in the West)'''

==Other Reasons for the Fall of the Roman Empire (in the West)==

Historians date the end of the ancient world at A.D. 500 or 600, or perhaps as early as 375 when the Huns invaded Europe from Asia.  The last Roman Emperor was the nine-year-old Romulus Augustus, and he was deposed (removed from power) in A.D. 476.  This is the date most often used by historians to denote the “fall” of the Roman empire.  Keep in mind, however, that the eastern half of the Roman empire based in Constantinople that split from the west in A.D. 264 never “fell”, and thrived for another thousand years.

Historians date the end of the ancient world at A.D. 500 or 600, or perhaps as early as 375 when the Huns invaded Europe from Asia.  The last Roman Emperor was the nine-year-old Romulus Augustus, and he was deposed (removed from power) in A.D. 476.  This is the date most often used by historians to denote the “fall” of the Roman empire.  Keep in mind, however, that the eastern half of the Roman empire based in Constantinople that split from the west in A.D. 264 never “fell”, and thrived for another thousand years.

Perhaps the Roman empire was too big and too diverse to maintain indefinitely.  No other empire has been able to control that much territory, with all its diversity, for hundreds of years.  There were future attempts to lay claim to the Roman empire.  Charlemagne insisted that he had reestablished the Roman empire in A.D. 800.  But its full power was gone forever.

Perhaps the Roman empire was too big and too diverse to maintain indefinitely.  No other empire has been able to control that much territory, with all its diversity, for hundreds of years.  There were future attempts to lay claim to the Roman empire.  Charlemagne insisted that he had reestablished the Roman empire in A.D. 800.  But its full power was gone forever.

'''VI.  The Byzantine Empire (in the East)'''

==The Byzantine Empire (in the East)==

Constantine I (“Constantine the Great”) became emperor of the western half of the Roman empire after the death of his father (in battle) and a period of uncertainty.   

Constantine I (“Constantine the Great”) became emperor of the western half of the Roman empire after the death of his father (in battle) and a period of uncertainty.